Positional change and positional changes of consonants. Positional exchange of vowels

Phonetic processes in the vowel area .

Positional exchange. The main cases of positional exchange of vowels include cases of qualitative reduction of the vowel sounds A, O, E in unstressed positions. High-quality reduction– this is a weakening of sound, which is accompanied by a change in acoustic-articulatory characteristics (the sound changes its DP). There are positions: percussion– the sound remains unchanged (strong position); first pre-shock– first degree of reduction; second(all other unstressed positions) – the second degree of reduction (weak first and second positions). The sounds I, U, Y do not undergo qualitative changes, they change only quantitatively. Qualitative reduction of these sounds has different results depending on whether they appear after a soft or hard consonant. See table.

Let’s not forget about the phenomenon of the absolute beginning of a word, where A and O in both the first and second position will be the same /\ (instead of /\ for the first and the expected b for the second position: ORANGE. E, respectively, in both the first and second position will be ( instead of in the first and Ъ in the second): ETAZHERKA [t/\zh'erk].

*Sometimes after hard hissing Zh, Sh, C in the first position A instead of the expected /\ sounds like E: you just need to remember such words - JACKET, SORRY, SORRY, SORRY, SORRY, RYE, JASMINE, HORSES, TWENTY, THIRTY. But this is not for me, but for the next topic (changes), and also for spelling.

Positional changes. Positional changes include phenomena accommodation vowels before soft and after soft consonants. Accommodation is the process of mutual adaptation of sounds. of different nature(vowel to consonant or vice versa). After a soft consonant, a non-front vowel moves forward and upward in formation at the beginning of pronunciation (progressive accommodation), before a soft one - at the end (regressive accommodation), between a soft one - throughout the entire pronunciation (progressive-regressive accommodation) .

For the sounds O, A, E - only under stress - all 4 cases are possible; for sounds U - both stressed and not, all 4 cases; for ы both under stress and without stress, only 2 cases are possible ы and ыя; for And a dot is not placed in front, since it is not used after a hard word - 2 cases And and ы. Sometimes instead of Ё (between soft ones) they designate k - SING [p’kt’]. J and J are considered soft.

Another case of positional changes is the progressive accommodation of the initial I in Y, when a consonant prefix is added to the root: GAME - PLAY UP (this applies to changes, since it knows exceptions - PEDAGOGICAL INSTITUTE is also possible to pronounce I).

Non-phonetic processes in the vowel area.

at the root - BIR//BER, GOR//GAR, non-accord//full consonance, E//O, A//Z, U//YU at the beginning of the word, O//E type VESNY//SPRING; in the prefix – PRE//PRI, NOT//NI, in the suffix – EK//IK, ETs//ITs, OVA//EVA//YVA//IVA, IN//EN//AN, in adjectives; at the end – OV//EV, IY//EYE, OH//EYE, OM//EM, ІY//Ой//Ий

2) Historical alternations of phonemes with zero sound (“fluent vowels”): in the root – DAY//DAY, WINDOW//WINDOWS, COLLECT//TAKE, WHO//WHOM, WHAT//WHAT, in the prefix – THROUGH//THROUGH, PRE//PERE, WITH//CO, VZ//WHOZ , IN//IN, OVER//NADO, FROM//OTO, KOY//KOE, in the suffix – PEAS//PEAS, RED//RED, BIRD//BIRD, TI//TH of the verb, SK//ESK, СН//ЭСН in adjectives, in the ending – ОY//ОУ, in the postfix – СЯ//Сь

The alternation RAZ//ROZ refers to phonetic types of writing and is one of the rare cases of reflection in writing not of historical, but of phonetic alternation within one phoneme - the strong position O (under the stress, which naturally sounds in the first and second positions, respectively, as /\ and Kommersant, which is reflected in the letter as A.

Phonetic processes in the area of consonants.

Positional exchange. The positional change of consonants includes diverse processes that are combined common feature– they know no exceptions. 1) Positional deafening of noisy voiced sounds at the end of a word - RODA-ROD [T]; 2) Regressive assimilation in terms of voicing - noisy deaf people are voiced before voiced ones MOWING-MOBING [Z] (assimilation refers to the processes of assimilation of homogeneous sounds - the influence of vowels on vowels, consonants on consonants, in contrast to accommodation); regressive assimilation by deafness - noisy voiced ones are deafened in front of noisy voiced ones - BOAT[T]. The process does not concern sonorants - neither the sonorants themselves, nor the noisy ones before the sonorants. The double role of the B sound is interesting (it is no coincidence that some also consider it sonorant). In front of it, noisy ones behave not as in front of a voiced one, but as in front of a sonorant one - they do not become voiced (RESPECT: T does not turn into D); and he himself behaves like a noisy voiced person - in front of a deaf person and at the end of the word he is deafened - LAVKA [F]; 3) Regressive assimilation by softness - will be exchanged only for the anterior lingual teeth D, T, S, Z, N before any of them soft: VEST [S’T’]; 4) Complete (such assimilation in which the sound changes not just one DP, but completely its entire characteristic) regressive assimilation of Z, S before hissing Sh, F, Ch, Shch, C – SEW [SHSH], HAPPINESS [SH’SH’]; T and D before CH – REPORT [CH’CH’]; T + C = C – FIGHT [CC]; T and D before C (FATHER [TTS]; S and Z before SH (SPLITTLE [SH'SH']; 5) Dieresis (loss of sound on a dissimilative basis) - KNOWN, HOLIDAY; 6) Dissimilation (reverse of assimilation - dissimilarity of sounds) G before K – SOFT [ХК]; 7) Accommodation by softness in front of I, b, (except C, W, F, H) – ARM//HANDS [K]//[K’]; 8) Vocalization of the phoneme J: as a consonant sound j appears only at the beginning of a stressed syllable (YU), and in other positions it appears as a non-syllabic sound - a vowel sound.

Note: B at the end of participial and adverbial suffixes does not turn into F; there it is F, because in a strong position like B it never sounds (there is no alternation). The same thing - we must distinguish between, say, the loss of sound in the synchrony SUN and in the diachrony FEELING, where at the modern level there is no loss, because there is no alternation with its full version.

Positional changes. Processes that occur as a trend, but have exceptions. 1) Assimilation in softness of labial and dental before labial and R before labial (BEAST, LOVE). Old norm required exactly this pronunciation, but now, apparently under the influence of spelling, this is not relevant. 2) Assimilation by softness before j: most often softened, but, again under the influence of spelling, before the dividing b, denoting j at the junction of the prefix and the root, the hard consonant EAT [S] sounds; 3) Irregular dissimilation of H before T or N: WHAT, OF COURSE [SHT] [SHN] (does not always happen - for example, SOMETHING - already only [TH]); 4) Accommodation according to the softness of hard ones before E - now, in many foreign words, it is also possible to pronounce a firm consonant before E: REVENGE [M’], but TEMP [T]. 5) Deafening of the sonor in the position at the end of the word after the hard PETER. 6) Sonoran vocalization – the acquisition of a syllabic character by a sonorant consonant in a cluster of consonants – SHIP[ъ]L, TEMB[ъ]R. All of these processes are at the same time orthoepic, because fluctuations in regular pronunciation are the reason for orthoepic variation.

Non-phonetic processes in the area of consonants.

1) Historical alternations of phonemes: traces of palatalization (first, second, third) HAND//HANDLE; traces of the influence of iota LIGHT//CANDLE; traces of simplification of consonant groups BEREGU//BERECH; stun at the end of a word (unverifiable MADE [F]); historical exchange of G for V in the endings of adjectives – RED [V]; alternation of suffixes CHIC//SCHIK; non-phonetic (phonemic) softness - WILL // BE, ZARYA // RADIANT (here it is not a softening, because in the word ZARYA before A should not be softened (non-anterior) - there is no positional conditionality).

2) Historical alternations of phonemes with zero sound (“fluent consonants): traces of L-epentheticum – EARTHLY//EARTH [–]//[L]; historical diaeresis (unverifiable) FEELING, LADDER; adjective suffixes SK//K; endings OV(EV)//– (GRAM//GRAMS).

Note. The change of Z//S in prefixes like IZ, WHO, RAZ, although reflected in the writing, is in fact not a historical, but a living, phonetic process of assimilation in terms of voiced-voicelessness: it’s just that phonetic, not phonemic, spelling is implemented here.

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Phonetic position– position of sound (vowels – under stress/unstressed; consonants – at the end of a word/before different consonants), where the sound can change its quality under the influence of neighboring sounds or change mutually, thereby determining the features of the sound system of the language.

Positional exchange- this is such an exchange of sound units, which is determined by the current given language syntagmatic laws of sound compatibility.

Positional exchange acc.. – replacement of this acc. to a qualitatively different acc. sound.

It is distinguished by deafness/voice, for pairs on this basis acc. sound, and then hardness/softness for pairs according to this criterion according to. sound Position exchange acc. sound on deaf/ringing associated with the transition call. acc. in the steam room he is deaf. sound and vice versa.

On the basis of deaf/ringing. The following main cases of position exchange are highlighted according to: sound:

1. Voiced noisy acc. in the position before voiceless noisy consonants, as well as at the absolute end of the word, they are necessarily replaced by paired voiceless consonants. (fairy tale, meadow)

2. Deaf noisy acc. before noisy voiced accord. must be replaced by their paired voiced acc. (koSba).

At the same time, paired for deaf./bell. noisy acc. are not subject to position. me (perform in their basic form) in following cases:

1. Before any chapter. sound, including reduced (mowing)

2. before all sonorant sounds (Shine).

3. Before the sound [in] and [in, ] (Palace, Creator).

This type exchange is a positional exchange acc. sound intersecting type.

Positional exchange on TV/soft. associated with the transition of TV. acc. in the steam room it is soft. acc. and vice versa.

Position less on TV/soft. are not subject to acc. sounds located in front of ch. sound [a] [o] [y], because Any sound can be here, like TV. so soft (rad, row).

Position exchange on TV/software can occur in Russian and Russified loanwords only before ch. front row ([i],[e]) and in front of the sound. [s]. At the same time, the position changes on TV/software. can only be felt at the junction of morphemes.

1. Before ch. the front row ([i], [e]) can only be placed softly. acc. sound That's why everything is TV. acc. be sure to change to paired ones softly for him. according to (corner-on corner)

2. before the sound [s] in the SRY can never be placed softly. acc. and therefore, getting into the position before the sound [s] softly. acc. must be replaced with a paired TV. acc. (mercy-alms).

This type of exchange is a crossing type of positional exchange on hard/soft.

In SRYA before the sound. [e]there may be no mitigation.

ü before the sound [e] TV can perform. hissing and [ts]. (Gesture, Pole, Workshop)

ü before the sound [e] TV can perform. acc. in borrowed words (mer, ser).

ü before the sound [e] TV can perform. acc. in abbreviations. (CHP).

Parallel type of positional exchange:

1. Deaf. acc. [ts] [h] [x] in position. before the call acc. are subject to voicing (father would, soH would, daughter would) ts-[dz]; h-[j]; x-[ɣ]

2. sonorous acc. sound are unpaired in voiceless/voiced terms, however, in positions of the absolute beginning of a word, before noisy voiceless ones. acc. or at the end of a word after a noisy word it is deaf. acc. they are muted. (Rta, theaterR)

3. All acc. sound being in a position in front of the rounded heads. (o, y) undergo labialization. (Juice, Suk).

Positional changes acc. sound

Types of phonetic alternations. Phonetic alternations, in turn, are positional and combinatorial. Positional alternation is a phonetic alternation of sounds depending on their position (position) in relation to the beginning or end of a word or in relation to a stressed syllable. Combinatorial alternation of sounds reflects their combinatorial changes due to the influence of neighboring sounds.

Another classification is their division on positional exchange and positional change. The basic concept for phenomena of phonetic nature is position– phonetically determined place of sound in the flow of speech in relation to significant manifestations of living things phonetic laws: in Russian, for example, for vowels - in relation to the stress or hardness/softness of the preceding consonant (in Proto-Slavic - in relation to the subsequent jj, in English - the closedness/openness of the syllable); for consonants - in relation to the end of the word or to the quality of the neighboring consonant. The types of phonetic alternations differ by the degree of positional conditioning. Positional exchange- alternation, rigidly occurring in all cases without exception and significant for meaning differentiation (a native speaker distinguishes it in the flow of speech): “akanie” - non-distinction of phonemes A and O in unstressed syllables, their coincidence in /\ or in b. Positional change– acts only as a tendency (knows exceptions) and is not recognized by a native speaker due to the lack of a semantic distinguishing function: A in MOTHER and MEAT are phonetically different A ([[ayaÿ]]and [[dä]]), but we do not recognize this difference; soft pronunciation of consonants before E is almost mandatory, but unlike I, there are exceptions (TEMP, TENDENCE).

Historical (traditional) alternations are alternations of sounds representing different phonemes, so historical alternations are reflected in writing. Non-phonetic, non-positional (historical) alternations are associated with the expression of grammatical (friend-friends) and word-formation (friend) meanings: act as an additional means of inflection, (formation and word formation. The historical alternation of sounds accompanying the formation of derivative words or grammatical forms of words is also called morphological, since it is determined by the proximity of phonemes with certain suffixes or inflections: for example, before diminutive suffixes -k(a), -ok etc. back-linguals regularly alternate with hissing ones (hand-hand, friend-friend), and before the suffix -yva(~yva-) part of the verbs alternates root vowels <о-а>(work-work out). Types of historical alternations.

1) Actually historical, phonetic-historical– alternations reflecting traces of once active living phonetic processes (palatalization, fall of reduced ones, iotation, etc.);

2)Etymological– reflecting the semantic or stylistic differentiation that once occurred in the language: EQUAL (identical) // EVEN (smooth), SOUL // SOUL; complete agreement // partial agreement, PR/PRI.

3) Grammatical, differentiating– which also have at the synchronic level the function of differentiating grammatical phenomena: NEIGHBOR//NEIGHBORS (D//D’’) – the change from hard to soft contrasts the singular and plural(these cases do not include truly different indicators, for example, conjugations –I and E, USH and YASH, since here we have before us not an exchange at the level of sound, but an opposition of morphological forms (the same – ENGINEER Y//ENGINEER A)).It is clear that all these phenomena, which have different natures, are only conditionally grouped as “historical” - therefore the term “non-phonetic” would be more accurate.

LECTURE 8. Positional change and positional changes of vowels and consonants. Historical alternations of vowels and consonants

Phonetic processes in the vowel area .

Let's not forget about the phenomenon of the absolute beginning of a word, where A and O in both the first and second position will be the same /\ (instead of /\ for the first and the expected b for the second position: [] ORANGE. E, respectively, in both the first and second position will be (instead of in the first and Kommersant in the second): ETAZHERKA [[t/\zh''erk]].


first position	second position	first position	second position

*Sometimes after hard hissing Ж, Ш, Ц in the first position A instead of the expected /\ sounds like E: you just need to remember such words - JACKET, SORRY, SORRY, SORRY, SORRY, RYE, JASMINE, HORSES, TWENTY, THIRTY. But this is not for me, but for the next topic (changes), and also for spelling.

Positional changes. Positional changes include phenomena accommodation vowels before soft and after soft consonants. Accommodation is the process of mutual adaptation of sounds of different nature (vowel to consonant or vice versa). After a soft consonant, a non-front vowel moves forward and upward in formation at the beginning of pronunciation (progressive accommodation), before a soft one - at the end (regressive accommodation), between a soft one - throughout utterances (progressive-regressive accommodation).

MAT – [[MaT

MINT – [[M’’˙aT]]

MOTHER – [[Ma˙T’’]]

MOTHER – [[M’’däT’’]]

For the sounds O, A, E - only under stress - all 4 cases are possible; for sounds U - both stressed and not, all 4 cases; for ы both under stress and without stress, only 2 cases are possible ы and ыяÿ, for And a dot is not placed in front, since it is not used after a hard word - 2 cases And иыь. Sometimes instead of Yo (between soft ones) they designate kê – SING [[p’’kêt’’]]. Y and JJ are considered soft.

Non-phonetic processes in the vowel area.

at the root - BIR//BER, GOR//GAR, non-accord//full consonance, E//O, A//Z, U//YU at the beginning of the word, O//E type VESNY//SPRING; in the prefix – PRE//PRI, NOT//NI, in the suffix – EK//IK, ETs//ITs, OVA//EVA//YVA//IVA, IN//EN//AN, in adjectives; at the end - OV//EV, IY//EYE, OH//EYE, OM//EM, ІY//Ой//Ий

Phonetic processes in the area of consonants.

Positional exchange. The positional exchange of consonants includes diverse processes, united by a common feature - they know no exceptions. 1) Positional deafening of noisy voiced sounds at the end of a word - RODA-ROD [[T]]; 2) Regressive assimilation in terms of voicing - noisy deaf people are voiced before voiced ones MOWING-MOWING [[Z]] (assimilation refers to the processes of assimilation of homogeneous sounds - the influence of vowels on vowels, consonants on consonants, in contrast to accommodation); regressive assimilation by deafness - noisy voiced ones are deafened in front of noisy voiced ones - BOAT[[T]]. The process does not concern sonorants - neither the sonorants themselves, nor the noisy ones before the sonorants. The double role of the B sound is interesting (it is no coincidence that some also consider it sonorant). In front of it, noisy ones behave not as in front of a voiced one, but as in front of a sonorant one - they do not become voiced (RESPECT: T does not turn into D); and he himself behaves like a noisy voiced person - in front of a deaf person and at the end of the word he is deafened - STORE [[F]]; 3) Regressive assimilation by softness - will be exchanged only for the anterior lingual teeth D, T, S, Z, N before any of them soft: NEWS [[S’’T’’]]; 4) Complete (such assimilation in which the sound changes not just one DP, but its entire entire characteristic) regressive assimilation of Z, S before the hissing Ш, Ж, Ш, Ш, Ц - SEW [[ШШ]], HAPPINESS [[Ш' 'Ш'']]; T and D before CH – REPORT [[CH’’CH’’]]; T+S= C – FIGHT [[CC]]; T and D before C (FATHER [[TTS]]; S and Z before SH (SPLITTLE [[Ш''Ш'']]; 5) Dieresis (loss of sound on a dissimilative basis) – KNOWN, HOLIDAY; 6) Dissimilation ( reverse assimilation - dissimilarity of sounds) G before K – SOFT [[ХК]]; 7) Accommodation by softness in front of I, b, (except C, W, F, H) – HAND//HANDS [[K]]//[[K’’]]; 8) Vocalization of the phoneme JJ: as a consonant sound jj appears only at the beginning of a stressed syllable (YUG), and in other positions it acts as a non-syllabic sound - a vowel sound.

Positional changes. Processes that occur as a trend, but have exceptions. 1) Assimilation in softness of labial and dental before labial and R before labial (Z''BELIEV, LYUB''VI). The old norm required exactly this pronunciation, but now, apparently under the influence of spelling, this is not relevant. 2) Assimilation by softness before jj: most often softened, but, again under the influence of spelling, before the dividing b, denoting jj, at the junction of the prefix and the root - the hard consonant EAT [[С]] sounds; 3) Irregular dissimilation of H before T or N: WHAT, OF COURSE [[SHT]][[SHN]](does not always happen - for example SOMETHING - already only [[TH]]); 4) Accommodation by the softness of hard words before E - now, in many foreign words, it is also possible to pronounce a hard consonant before E: REVENGE [[M’’]], but TEMP [[T]]. 5) Deafening of the sonor in the position at the end of the word after the hard PETER. 6) Sonoran vocalization – the acquisition of a syllabic character by a sonorant consonant in a cluster of consonants – KORAB[[ъ]]Л, TEMB[[ъ]]Р. All of these processes are at the same time orthoepic, because fluctuations in regular pronunciation are the reason for orthoepic variation.

Non-phonetic processes in the area of consonants.

1) Historical alternations of phonemes: traces of palatalization (first, second, third) HAND//HANDLE; traces of the influence of iota LIGHT//CANDLE; traces of simplification of consonant groups BEREGU//BERECH; stun at the end of a word (unchecked BY DOING [[F]]); historical exchange of G for V in the endings of adjectives – RED [[V]]; alternation of suffixes CHIC//SCHIK; non-phonetic (phonemic) softness - WILL // BE, ZARYA // RADIANT (here it is not a softening, because in the word ZARYA before A should not be softened (non-anterior) - there is no positional conditionality).

2) Historical alternations of phonemes with zero sound (“fluent consonants): traces of L-epentheticum – EARTHLY//EARTH [[–]]//[[L]]; historical diaeresis (unverifiable) FEELING, LADDER; adjective suffixes SK//K; endings OV(EV)//– (GRAM//GRAMS).

LECTURE 9. Segmental and supersegmental units. Stress and its types

Linear units are also called segmental, since they are obtained as a result of segmentation against the background of comparison with other similar units as minimal independent fragments. But as a result of the division of the sound flow, other, no longer limiting units are distinguished, which are called supersegmental. Supersegmental are units that do not have an independent semantic character, but simply organize the speech flow due to the characteristics of the matter of sound and our organs of speech and senses. If supersegmental units are not related to the expression of meaning, they still have their own articulatory-acoustic specificity. The articulatory-acoustic characteristics of supersegmental units are called PROSODY.

PROSODY is a set of phonetic features such as tone, volume, tempo, and general timbre coloring of speech. Initially, the term “prosody” (Greek prosodia – stress, melody) was applied to poetry and singing and meant a certain rhythmic and melodic scheme superimposed on a chain of sounds. The understanding of prosody in linguistics is similar to that accepted in the theory of verse in the sense that prosodic features relate not to segments (sounds, phonemes), but to the so-called supra- (i.e. supra-) segmental components of speech, longer in duration than a separate segment - to a syllable, word, syntagma (intonation-semantic unity, usually consisting of several words) and sentence. Accordingly, prosodic features are characterized by duration and impreciseness of their implementation.

The section of phonetics that studies these characteristics is called accordingly. Since their characteristics come down to two types of phenomena – STRESS and INTONATION, this section is divided into two subsections: ACCENTOLOGY and INTONOLOGY.

ACCENTOLOGY(Latin akcentus “emphasis” + Greek logos “word, teaching”). 1. System of accents of the language. 2. The doctrine of accentual (prosodic) means of language. Aspects of accentology: descriptive, comparative-historical, theoretical. Descriptive accentology studies the phonetic, phonological, and grammatical properties of prosodic means. Comparative-historical accentology studies historical changes in accent systems, their external and internal reconstruction. Theoretical accentology describes the systemic relationships of prosodic means, the role of significant units in the structure, and linguistic functions.

The central concept of accentology is emphasis.STRESS in a broad sense –– This is any emphasis (emphasis) in the flow of sounding speech of one or another part of it (sound - as part of a syllable, syllable - as part of a word, word - as part of a speech tact, syntagm; syntagm as part of a phrase) using phonetic means. STRESS in the narrow sense – only verbal stress

TYPES OF STRESS:

According to the acoustic-articulatory characteristics, stress differs between monotonic (expiratory) and polytonic (musical, melodic, tonic, tonal). They also talk about the quantitative type of stress.

Russian-type stress was traditionally considered dynamic, or expiratory. It was assumed that increased respiratory and articulatory effort on stressed vowels is reflected in their increased acoustic intensity.

Another way of organizing the relationship between stressed and unstressed syllables is possible: the vowel of a stressed syllable lengthens, while the unstressed ones retain a neutral duration (the quality of the vowels remains almost unchanged). These are languages with quantitative (quantitative) stress. Modern Greek is usually cited as an example of this type of stress. In it, unstressed sounds are not subject to reduction and differ from stressed sounds only in the absence of an increment in duration. In ancient times, many languages had such an accent.

Traditionally, there is another type of stress – tonal. In Europe, it is represented in the South Slavic (Serbo-Croatian and Slovenian) and Scandinavian (Swedish and Norwegian) languages. This type of stress is associated with a special interaction between verbal and phrasal prosody. In most languages of the world, the beginning of the tonal movement that implements phrasal accent is combined with the beginning of the stressed syllable. However, it is also possible for two landmarks to appear to place the tonal emphasis. For example, in the Serbo-Croatian language there was a shift of stress by one syllable to the left (the so-called “retraction”), and in the place of stress, words with the former stress on the second syllable coincided with those that had the original initial stress; the old orientation of the tonal accent of the phrase was preserved. Therefore, in words where the stress has not shifted, the falling tone of the statement falls on the stressed vowel, and where it has shifted, the fall in tone falls on the overstressed syllable, while the fall in tone is often preceded by its rise. As a result, on the initial stressed syllable the falling and rising tones are opposed. For example, words glory, power in Serbo-Croatian have a falling accent, and words leg, needle–– ascending.

The object of emphasis is emphasized syllabic, verbal, syntagmatic (beat), phrasal.

Accent syllabic–– selection a certain sound as part of a syllable. Syllable stress is a change in the sound strength or tone of a syllabic sound. There are usually five types of syllable stress: smooth, ascending, descending, ascending-descending, descending-ascending. With rising stress, the syllable is characterized by rising intonation. With a descending stress, the stressed syllable is characterized by a descending intonation.

Accent verbal–– highlighting one syllable in a word using phonetic means, serving for phonetic unification. this word.

Russian verbal stress has qualitative and quantitative characteristics. According to the traditional point of view, Russian verbal stress is dynamic (force), expiratory, expiratory, i.e. the stressed vowel is the strongest and loudest in the word. However, experimental phonetic studies indicate that the loudness (“strength”) of a vowel depends both on the quality of the vowel ([a] is the loudest, \у], [and], [ы]- the quietest), and on the position of the vowel in the word: the closer to the beginning of the word the vowel is, the greater its volume, for example, in the word gardens an unstressed vowel is stronger than a stressed vowel. Therefore, an essential characteristic word stress is its duration: a stressed vowel differs in longer duration from an unstressed one. In addition, a stressed syllable is distinguished by greater clarity: under stress, sounds are pronounced that are impossible in an unstressed position.

The languages of the world differ both in the rhythmic patterns allowed in words and in the functions performed by stress in them. An example of a language with an exceptional variety of accentual (i.e., stressed) possibilities is Russian. Since the stress can fall on any syllable of a word, it can perform a semantic distinguishing function, contrasting pairs like: saw - pli, zmok - castle, etc.

In many languages, stress is fixed, occupying a permanent place in the word. Fixed stress is oriented toward extreme positions in a word—either its beginning or its end. Thus, Czech and Hungarian languages have stress on the first syllable, Polish on the penultimate, and most Turkic languages on the last. Languages have a similar rhythmic organization, in which stress can occupy one of two positions, oriented to the edge of the word, and its placement depends on the so-called distribution of “light” and “heavy” syllables. “Light” are syllables that end in a short vowel, and “heavy” are syllables that have either a long vowel or a vowel covered by a final consonant. Thus, in Latin and Arabic, the stress in non-monosyllabic words falls on the penultimate syllable if it is “heavy”, otherwise it shifts to the previous syllable.

Russian stress is not only variable, but also mobile: it can shift when the grammatical form of the word changes (vod - vdu). English has more limited accent capabilities. As in Russian, the stress in it is varied, which implies the possibility of contrasting pairs like: ўsubject “subject” –– subўject “to subjugate”, ўdesert “desert” –– deўsert “to desert”; English stress can also change during suffixal word formation: ўsensitive –– sensitivity. However, inflectional possibilities in English are small, and there is no change in stress during inflection.

Languages also show significant differences in the distribution of gradations of force in the unstressed part of a word. In some languages, all unstressed syllables are equally opposed to the stressed syllable, although marginal syllables may have additional strengthening or weakening. In other languages, the principle of "dipodia" operates: stronger and weaker syllables follow one another, with a gradual weakening of strength as they move away from the apex. This is the situation in Finnish and Estonian: the main stress in them falls on the first syllable, the secondary stress on the third, and the tertiary stress on the fifth. The situation in the Russian language is unusual: the pre-stressed syllable here is inferior in strength to the stressed syllable, but exceeds the others: potakla (here means reduced a).

There is another possibility of varying the prosodic scheme of a word with “dynamic” stress: different phonetic parameters can enhance different positions in this scheme. Thus, in Turkic languages, the main accentual vertex of a word is the final syllable, on which the intonation accent is placed. However, there is also a center of collateral reinforcement - the initial syllable, which has a loudness accent.

Languages without accent (accent). In many languages outside of Europe, there is no clearly defined accentual vertex of the word, and scientists have difficulty determining the place of stress. A typical example is Georgian, regarding the rhythmic organization of which there is no single point of view. There is an opinion that the assumption that the rhythmic combination of the syllables of a word is mandatory is false (V.B. Kasevich et al., S.V. Kodzasov). In particular, the history of the Russian language speaks in its favor. In Old Russian, a significant number of forms of full-valued words were the so-called “enclinomen” (V.A. Dybo, A.A. Zaliznyak). These words did not have their own stress and were added in the form of enclitics to the preceding full-stressed words.

Accent functions.Word-forming function: phonetic combination of a word. Russian words have only one main (acute) stress, but complex words can have, in addition to the main one, a secondary, side (gravity) stress: cf. rural And agricultural. The recognition function of word stress is also associated with the word-forming function, which allows you to recognize the word, since the word is characterized by non-two-stress.

One of the most important functions of word stress is differentiating function: stress serves as a means of distinguishing words (flour And flour, castle And lock) and their different meanings (chaos And chaos), word forms (hands And hands), as well as stylistic variations of the word (you call and decomposition you call, it's cold and dial. cold, alcohol and prof. alcohol,

The movable stress is not fixed on a separate syllable or morpheme and can be inflectional And word-formation. Mobile inflectional stress is capable of moving from one syllable to another during inflection (hand-hands). Mobile word-formation stress is capable of moving from one syllable to another, from one morpheme to another during word formation (horse-horse, hand – pen). Along with the movable stress, the Russian language also presents a fixed stress: shoe, shoes.

Not every vocabulary word has its own word stress. Functional words receive stress in the flow of speech only in exceptional cases, but usually they form clitics. In a statement, as a rule, there are fewer stresses than words, due to the formation of phonetic words, in which function and independent words are combined with one stress.

The accent is timed ( syntagmatic) – highlighting one of the words in a speech beat (syntagma) by strengthening the verbal stress that unites different words in one syntagma. Syntagmatic stress usually falls on the stressed vowel last word in speech beat: In the original autumn there is / a short, / but wonderful time //.

The speech beat usually coincides with the respiratory group, i.e. a segment of speech pronounced with one blast of exhaled air, without pauses. The integrity of a speech beat as a rhythmic unit is created by its intonation design. The intonation center is concentrated on the stressed syllable of a word as part of a speech beat - - bar accent: On dry aspen / hoodie/... Each speech beat is formed by one of the intonation structures. Speech tact is sometimes called syntagma.

The main means of dividing into syntagms is a pause, which usually appears in combination with the melody of speech, the intensity and tempo of speech and can be replaced by sudden changes in the meanings of these prosodic features. One of the words of the syntagma (usually the last) is characterized by the strongest stress (With logical stress, the main stress can fall on any word of the syntagma).

A phrase usually stands out and contains several speech beats, but the boundaries of the phrase and the beat may coincide: Night. // Street. // Flashlight. // Pharmacy //(Block). The selection of speech beats can be characterized by variability: cf. Field behind the ravine And Field/behind the ravine.

Phrase stress–– highlighting one of the words in a phrase by increasing verbal stress, combining different words into one phrase. Phrasal stress usually falls on the stressed vowel of the last word in the final speech beat (syntagm): There is an initial autumn / short, / butmarvelousit's time //.

Within a bar (less often a phrase), two types of bar (phrase) stress are distinguished, depending on the functions – logical And emphatic.

Stress logical (semantic)–– stress, which consists of highlighting a certain part of a sentence (usually a word), on which the speakers’ main attention is focused. Logical stress is observed in cases where the content of speech requires special emphasis on certain parts of the statement. With help logical stress Usually one or another word is highlighted in a sentence, important from the logical, semantic side, on which all attention should be concentrated

Positional change of vowel sounds is the exchange of stressed vowels with unstressed ones within one morpheme when the phonetic position of the sound changes in relation to stress. Positional vowel changes can be of two types: exchange of vowels of parallel type and crossed type.

Less vowels parallel only the upper vowels [i], [ы], [у] are affected. When changing phonetic position relative to stress percussion sounds upper rise are naturally replaced by unstressed, quantitatively reduced vowels [ And], [s], [at]. For example: l[ist]st - l[ And]stock; s[yr]r - s[ s]rock; l[ú]ny - l[ at]on the.

In this type, there are no common members among the rows of positional exchange; the vowels of the upper rise continue to differ in the unstressed position.

Less vowels crossing type, non-high vowels [a], [o], [e], [e] are exposed, which in an unstressed position are replaced by quantitatively and qualitatively reduced sounds, i.e. sounds of a different articulation, and at the same time cease to differ in the unstressed position. This type of exchange has two options, determined by the quality of neighboring consonants and the use of vowels at the absolute beginning of the word.

Cross-type vowel change in position

After hard consonants and at the absolute beginning of a word

(in an open syllable)

The stressed vowels [a] and [o], changing the phonetic position in relation to stress within the morpheme, are naturally replaced in the first pre-stressed syllable and at the absolute beginning of the word sound [Λ], and in the remaining pre-stressed and all post-stressed syllables - reduced 2nd degree of the middle row of the middle rise, non-labialized [ъ]. For example:

[par]r – [pΛ]ry – [p]rova; in [x ó]d – in [xΛ]dit – out [hd]d.

On the face common members in the rows of positional exchange, the sounds [a] and [o] cease to differ in the unstressed position.

Change of vowels in position after soft consonants of the crossed type.

Stressed vowels [a], [o], [e], with a change in phonetic position in relation to stress, are naturally replaced in the first pre-stressed syllable by the sound [and e], and in the remaining pre-stressed and in all post-stressed syllables - by a reduced 2nd degree of the front row upper-middle elevation non-labialized [b]. For example:

[h'a]s - [h'i e]sy - [h'y]owl;

[l’ó]d – [l’i e]dovoy – [l’o]dovar;

[l’e]c – [l’i e]sa – [l’y]sovoz.

Note:

Special place Among the vowels, the sound of the front-middle row of the middle rise [e] is occupied, which, unlike the front vowel [e], appears in a position after the hard consonant. Finding itself in an unstressed position, this sound in the first pre-stressed syllable is naturally replaced by the sound [ы е], and in the remaining unstressed syllables - by the reduced 2nd degree of the middle row of the middle rise, non-labialized [ъ]. For example: [sher]st - [shy e]rusty - [sh']rstyanoy.

The sound [e] also appears at the absolute beginning of a word. However, in the overwhelming majority these are words of foreign origin, less often this sound is found in native Russian words (eto, eh, eva, echo, etc.). Therefore, the vowel [e] at the absolute beginning of a word does not undergo a positional change of the crossing type when changing position relative to stress, maintaining its acoustic and articulatory features and in an unstressed position, changing only quantitatively, for example: [е́ . ]tika – [ uh]tic; [ep]pos – [ uh]pic.

The vowel menu [e] with the sounds [ы е] and [ъ] can be considered as a type of vowel exchange of the crossed type in the position after hard consonants.

A similar change is observed in the position after hard sibilants in place of the stressed [o], for example: [zhon]n s- [zhy e]na – [zhy]nolyub, and also in a few words in the position after hard hissing ones in place of the stressed [a], for example: [zha]l - [zhy e]let; lo[sha]dka - lo[shy e]dey (see: Avanesov R.I. Russian literary pronunciation. M., 1972, pp. 63-64).

Varieties of positional exchange of non-high vowels, characterized by high degree regularity are given in the following table:

Analyzing the positional change of vowels, it is necessary to determine articulatory features not only of vowels complete education, but also reduced sounds.

	Front row	Front-middle row	Middle row	Middle-back row	Back row
Top rise	[And]		[s]		[y]
Upper-medium rise	[i e], [b]	[s e]
Medium rise	[e]	[e]	[ъ]		[O]
Lower-mid rise				[Λ]
Bottom rise			[A]
	Non-labialized	Labialized

Positional exchange of consonants

The positional exchange of consonants, which has a natural character, is associated with signs of the participation of voice and noise, the place of formation and the method of noise formation.

Positional exchange consonants is associated with the following relationships:

1. Voiceless-voiced noisy ones in a position in front of the noisy ones, i.e. before voiceless noisy voiced noisy ones positionally change to voiceless (l a [f k] a, lo [shk] a), and voiceless noisy ones before voiced ones change positionally to voiced ones ([zd"] e l a t, o [dg] a d a t b).

As a result of positional exchange, a criss-crossed type of positionally changing voiceless-voiced consonants:

p − b p " − b " f − c f " − c "

t − d t " − d " s − z s " − z "

w − z w " − z " k − g k " − g "

(those. before consonants voiceless and voiced (P - B) perform, and in other positions either only voiceless (P) or only voiced (B)).

2. Hard-soft consonants before [e], i.e. if the vowels [a], [o], [u] are combined with both hard and soft consonants ([m o l] - [m "o l], etc.), then in combination with [e], as a rule, only soft consonants appear (f. po[ra] - [za[p" a], but po[p" e] - [za[p" e]).

As a result of this positional exchange, a crossing type of positionally changing hard-soft consonants is also formed:

p−p" b−b" f−f" v−v"

m−m" t−t" d−d" s−s"

z−z" n−n" l−l" r−r"

(i.e. in positions before [a], [o], [y] both hard and soft consonants appear (t - t", etc.), and in positions before [e] - only soft ones ( [t"], etc.).

However, the syntagmatic law in modern Russian has a limited effect here:

1) before [e] there appear solid hissing [w], [zh] and affricate [ts] (w[e]st, f[e]st, ts[e]ly);

2) hard consonants appear before [e] in borrowed words and abbreviations ([kupe], [mayor], [vef], etc.).

Positional changes consonants are associated with the following relationships:

1. Hard - soft consonants when they are combined in the flow of speech, i.e. hard consonants falling into position before the next soft one, pronounced softly. This is observed:

1) when pronouncing dental ones before soft dental ones, as well as before [h"], [sh"]: [s"n"]e g, ba[n"t"]ik, pu[t"n"]ik, [ z"d"]to do, [s" - t"]emi, and [s"- s"]yourself, etc.;

2) when pronouncing dental ones before soft labials: ve[t"v"]i, [d"v"]e, [s"m"]merit, i[z"b"]it, [s"-v"] edrom, etc.;

3) when pronouncing labials before soft labials: ga[m"m"]e, su[m"m"]e, [v"v"]el, [v"m"]este, etc.

2. Voiceless affricates [ch"], [ts] and voiceless fricative [x] before voiced noisy ones at the junction of two words with continuous pronunciation of sounds, i.e. [ch"] changes into voiced [d"zh"]: [doch "] - [dod"zh-by", [ts] changes into voiced [dz]: [^t"ets] - [^t"edz-by], [x] changes into voiced fricative [γ]: [ p^tukh] - [p^tuγ-by].

3. Sonorant consonants after voiceless noisy ones at the end of a word and sonorant consonants before voiceless noisy ones at the beginning of a word, sonorant consonants in these positions are stunned: chubby[plump], motley[n "sharp", mouth[p m a], moss[mxa].

§ 3. Positional change and positional changes of vowels

Positional exchange of vowels depends on their stressed and unstressed positions.

Vowel sounds of the Russian language that appear under stress and in other unstressed syllables.

As a result of such positional exchange, a parallel intersecting type of positionally changing stressed and unstressed vowels is formed, when some vowels in different positions retain their quality, while others, without differing in one position (under stress), are replaced by a vowel of a different quality in other positions.

Positional changes of vowels are associated with the influence on them of neighboring preceding and subsequent hard and soft consonants. This effect is most pronounced when the vowels are in percussion syllable.

In relation to neighboring hard and soft consonants, vowels under stress can be in eight positions. If any consonant is conventionally designated by the letter t, and a vowel by the letter a, then the various positions of the stressed vowel can be represented in the form of the following formulas:

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Phonetics Graphics Orthoepy Spelling
Educational and practical manual for bachelors of the defectology faculty Kursk 2012 Published by decision of the editor

Phonetic division of speech
The phrase is the largest phonetic unit, a statement complete in meaning, united by a special intonation and phrasal stress, concluded between two lengths

Accent
Stress is the selection, using phonetic means, of one of the syllables of a non-monosyllabic word or word as part of a speech beat or phonetic phrase. Verbal

Intonation
Intonation is the rhythmic and methodological aspect of speech, serving in a sentence as a means of expressing syntactic meanings and emotional and expressive coloring. Every speaker has

Speech apparatus device
The speech apparatus is a set of organs that are used to produce speech (see figure). Pronunciation apparatus: 1 - hard

Phonetic transcription
Phonetic transcription is a special way of recording speech in full accordance with its sound, used for scientific purposes. The basic principle of phonetic transcription is

Change of vowels A, O, E after hard and after soft consonants
V) in Russian phonetic transcription j is used, which is not in the Russian alphabet and which denotes the middle consonant, n

Hyphenation
Syllable division is a real or potential boundary between syllables. A syllable is a segment of speech in which one sound stands out with the greatest sonority in comparison with

The concept of phonemes

The concept of phonemes
Sound units then become phenomena of language when they act as functional units. An aspect of phonetics in which the units of a sound system are viewed as functionally significant,

Differential and redundant features of phonemes
Phonemes can be opposed to each other according to one, two or more characteristics, and: 1) there are such constant signs, in which at least two phonemes that are identical in other respects differ

Composition of strong vowel phonemes
Constant (constitutive) features for vowel phonemes of the Russian literary language are the degree of tongue elevation and the presence or absence of labialization. Therefore, you can install the following

Vowel phonemes in weak positions
Unstressed positions are weak for vowel phonemes. Weak vowel phonemes appear in these positions. It is necessary to distinguish between weak vowel phonemes of the first pre-stressed syllable and weak vowel phonemes of the remaining

Composition of strong consonant phonemes
For consonant phonemes of the Russian literary language, constant, constitutive features are the degree of participation of voice and noise, place of formation, method of formation, hardness and softness. Can

Correlative series of consonant phonemes
In Russian literary language There are 2 groups of consonant phonemes, which, unlike other consonants, form correlative series in the phonetic system. The first group is paired

Graphic arts
Writing arose as a means of communication in addition to oral speech. Writing associated with the use of graphic characters (drawing, sign, letter) is called descriptive writing. It

Spelling
Spelling (from the Greek orthos - “correct”, “straight” and grapho - “I write”), or spelling, is a system of rules governing writing.

Glossary of terms
Allophone is a specific sound that represents a phoneme of speech; a generalized name for variants and variations of a phoneme. Alphabet is a collection of arranged