Phonetic means of speech (supersegmental units). Phonetic means

You marvel at the preciousness of our language: every sound is a gift; everything is grainy, large, like pearls themselves...

N.V. Gogol

Euphony in the Russian language is mainly determined by the ratio of vowels and consonants in the text (on average in Russian speech, vowels make up 42.35%, consonants - 59.65%), as well as the predominance of “beautiful sounds” - vowels, sonorants, voiced consonants, which in relation to “non-musical” noisy deaf people make up 74.5% in Russian speech.

To create sonically exemplary speech, the sounds in the speech stream must be selected so that the speech is easy to pronounce and at the same time distinct.

An extremely important and significant stylistic device that enhances the expressiveness of artistic and partially journalistic speech is sound recording(sound, verbal, instrumentation) - the use of words whose sound figuratively conveys the phenomenon being drawn and thereby contributes to the disclosure of the semantic and artistic content of the image, enhances its expressiveness.

There are two main types of sound instrumentation, which consist in the selection of words that sound similar:

- alliteration – repetition of consonants (for example: City rake, rowing, grabbed. (M);

- assonance - repetition of vowels (for example: We are bored listening to the autumn blizzard. (N).

Alliteration and assonance enhance the imagery and phonetic expressiveness of speech.

An example of the semantic use of alliteration is the following lines by V. Mayakovsky: Where is it, the ringing of bronze or the edge of granite? , where the repetition of sounds [ sound]closely connects the words of bronze with ringing and repetition of sounds [ gr] - the phrase granite edge. The repetition of these sounds concentrates attention on the main idea of the stanza - we're talking about about a monument carved from granite and cast in bronze.

The technique of combining assonance with alliteration is very expressive, for example, in V. Mayakovsky’s poem “A Cloud in Pants”: So, again, I will take a dark and dejected heart, drenched in tears, for revenge, like a dog who carries a paw that was run over by a train into the kennel. (Alliteration on p and b is combined with repetition of vowels u, a).

Topic 3. Vocabulary and phraseology

Topic 3.1. The word, its lexical meaning

Word - the basic unit of language that serves to name and communicate about objects, processes, properties and relationships.

The totality of all the words of a language constitutes it vocabulary.

Lexicology – a branch of linguistics that studies the vocabulary of a language.

All words of the significant parts of speech have lexical and grammatical meanings. But the words of the auxiliary parts of speech usually have only a grammatical meaning; they help the words of the significant parts of speech.

The lexical meaning of a word is its content, its correlation with an object or phenomenon of reality.

The grammatical meaning is general meaning words as parts of speech (for example, the meaning of objectivity in nouns), the meaning of a particular tense, person, number, gender, etc.

Lexical and grammatical meanings are closely related. Change lexical meaning words leads to a change in grammatical meaning. For example: a voiceless consonant (relative adjective) and a voiceless voice (qualitative adjective, has a degree of comparison, short form); Gostiny Dvor (adjective) – the living room was full of people (noun).

Russian dictionary literary language, which has evolved over many centuries, is very rich in the number of words, and in the variety of shades of their meanings, and in the subtleties of stylistic coloring. The entire Russian people, their great writers, critics, and scientists participated in the creation of the dictionary of literary language vocabulary.

Russian language is one of the richest languages in the world. (It’s not for nothing that they say “great, mighty” about him!) The active vocabulary of our contemporary includes an average of 7–13 thousand words. The "Big Academic Dictionary" (1950–1965) contains over 120,000 words.

But the richness of a language is judged not only by the number of words. The vocabulary of the Russian language is enriched polysemantic words, homonyms, antonyms, synonyms, paronyms, phraseological units, as well as layers of words representing the history of the development of our language - archaisms, historicisms, neologisms.

Ambiguous words

The presence of many words in the Russian language not one, but several meanings constitutes the richness of speech and allows the use of this feature as a means of figurativeness. Here are some examples of polysemous words: leaf (maple) – leaf (cardboard); deaf (old man) – deaf (wall); handle (child) – handle (door); cut (with a knife) – cut (students on an exam); goes (person) – goes (film) – goes (meaning “agree”).

Words denoting abstract concepts in different combinations can have different meanings. For example, the word absolute can mean: 1) “irrelevant, taken by itself” ( absolute truth); 2) “complete, unconditional” ( absolute peace); 3) "unlimited" ( absolute monarchy).

The stylistic use of polysemy is based on the possibility of using words not only in a literal but also in a figurative meaning: Tanks ironed enemy trenches(cf.: iron the sheets).

Some words can be used with different meaning in various speech styles. For example: word re-elect in book speech it means “to choose a second time, anew,” and in colloquial speech it means “to replace someone.”

The ambiguity of vocabulary is an inexhaustible source of renewal and rethinking of the word. Writers find in polysemy a source of vivid emotionality and liveliness of speech. Determine how many meanings the poet found for the word road.

My name is darling motorway,

AND path, running nearby,

AND way that runs across the plain,

AND caravan route in a desert,

AND climber's step steeper

To the top, hidden in the clouds,

AND ship's trail over the waves

And the blue heights above us...

And soon we will be replenished with new ones

The meaning is a familiar word.

Imagine: the rocket is ready

TO jump to another planet.

Saying goodbye to her crew,

Standing on the threshold of the stars,

We will simply and casually say:

"See you! Happy road!"

(V. Osten)

Homonyms

Homonyms(from Greek homos– “same” and omyna- “name”) are words that are pronounced the same way, but denote different, unrelated concepts: key 1 (“source”) – key 2 (“to unlock the lock”) – key 3 ("to cipher"); braid 1 ("gun") – braid 2 (“hair”) – braid 3 ("shoal or peninsula view").

Exist different types homonyms. Homonyms are words that sound the same but are spelled differently: true d– true T, lu To– lu G .

Homonyms include words that sound different but are spelled the same: muk A– m at ka, p A rit – steam And yea, deputy O k – h A mok.

Sometimes ambiguity arises due to homonymy:

Visit the bottom of science. (Day science or bottom Sciences?)

Everything will be ready by evening. (Evening hours or evening performance?)

Homonyms give special stylistic expressiveness to proverbs and sayings: Whatever There is, but wants There is; In a peaceful field and on a field abuse know how to command without abuse.

There are complete and partial homonyms. Full lexical homonyms are words of the same part of speech and coincide in all basic grammatical forms.

Partial (or incomplete) homonymy is characterized by the fact that words with different meanings do not coincide in sound and spelling in all grammatical forms.

Signs of homonymy also have:

Omoforms - coincidence only separate form words: I'm flying(from treat) -I'm flying(from fly); my(possessive pronoun) - my(imperative mood of the verb wash);

Homophones – so-called phonetic homonyms (words that sound the same, but have different spellings and meanings): Gray wolf in thick forest met a redhead fox(S. Marshak).

Homographs – graphic homonyms (words are written the same, but pronounced differently, mainly depending on stress; sometimes due to the fact that dots are not always used e): let's eat - let's eat; flight - flight; atlas - atlas.

Antonyms

Antonyms(from Greek anti– “against” and onyma- “name”) are words with different sounds that express opposite, but correlative concepts: light - darkness, heat - cold, speak - remain silent.

Antonyms come in different roots: love - hate, south - north and cognates: coming and going, true and false.

Antonyms are used as means of expression to create contrast. Many proverbs and sayings contain antonyms: Full and hungry doesn't understand; Thin world better than kind quarreling.

The phenomenon of antonymy is also used as a special stylistic device - combining the incompatible: the beginning of the end, optimistic tragedy, hot snow, bad good person. This is a favorite technique of publicists when creating titles or titles for articles and essays: Expensive cheapness; Cold – hot season; Big troubles for small businesses.

The specificity of Russian linguistic thinking is that the expressive in it prevails over the rational, which is why there are so many antonymic formations in the Russian language: Not really; of course not; the most ordinary; unusually banal; terribly good; terribly funny; incredibly simple and etc.

In the Russian language there is a special group of words containing opposite (antonymic) components of meaning, for example: He listened to lesson . Flowerbeds broken our schoolchildren. More often, the antonymity of interpretation manifests itself in different contexts. For example: He looked through all films with this actor("saw") and He looked through this error in work(“didn’t see”); She bypassed all guests(“paid attention to everyone”) and Fate bypassed her(“deprived of attention”).

Synonyms

Synonyms(from Greek synonymos- “of the same name”) are words that are close in meaning and belong to the same part of speech. Synonyms may vary the following signs:

a) shades of meaning: labor - work, defect - shortcoming - flaw;

b) emotional coloring: a little - just a little;

c) stylistic function: sleep - sleep - rest.

Synonyms that differ in shades of meaning are called semantic : elderly – old – decrepit; crimson – scarlet – red. Semantic synonyms introduce different shades into the characteristics of the same concept or phenomenon. For example, profession synonymous specialties, but not in everything. A profession is an occupation as such, and a specialty is a specific concept that denotes any specific area of science or production in which a person is engaged, for example: profession- teacher, speciality– literature teacher or physics teacher; profession- doctor, speciality– cardiologist, etc.).

Synonyms that differ different attitude to the designated object or phenomenon are called emotionally expressive: full – fat – fat.

The stylistic differences of synonyms are determined by the sphere of their use, compliance with one or another style. Stylistic synonyms – these are words that are absolutely identical in meaning, for example: deficit(formal business style) and a lack of(spoken) (see 3.1.2.3.).

Synonymous words may also differ in the degree of modernity ( very – very, Sagittarius – soldier).

A special type of synonymy is created by replacing a one-word name with a descriptive expression, which makes it possible to characterize an object from different angles: Moscow – Belokamennaya – Third Rome.

Paronyms

Paronyms(from Greek para– “about” and onyma- “name”) are words, in most cases of the same root, similar in sound, but having different meanings: addressee– “sender” – destination– “recipient”; emigrant– “leaving the country” – immigrant- "entering".

Paronyms are words methodical – methodical – methodological, the meaning of each of these words is determined by the primitive word in the process of word formation ( methodical – technique – methodology). Yes, we say methodical shelling– “strictly consistent, according to plan”, methodical allowance– “made according to the method”, methodological analysis– “a set of research techniques.”

Paronyms are words diplomatic And diplomatic.Diplomatic maybe something that relates to diplomacy ( diplomatic mail); diplomatic- something correct, in keeping with etiquette ( diplomatic behavior of the parties).

Typical speech error is a confusion of paronymous words introduce And provide. Certificate of illness of a child seems back to school, new teacher seems class, here's an opportunity to take a field trip to O is placed. The meaning of these paronyms should be defined in this way: introduce: 1) give, hand over, report something for familiarization, information; 2) show, demonstrate something; before O put: 1) to give the opportunity to possess, dispose of, use something; 2) to give the opportunity to do something, to entrust someone with the execution of some task.

Mixing paronyms often leads to a distortion of meaning: Put your luggage back step legs(instead of: foot); It clicked ankle wickets(instead of: latch).

The confusion of paronyms also indicates the speaker’s insufficient speech culture: He dressed sweater(instead of: allotment); This economical way to check tests(instead of: economical= "profitable").

Phonetic means………………………………………………………2

Lexical means………………………………………………………...5

Phraseological means…………………………………26

Syntactic means…………………………………37

Application. Practical tasks ……………………….46

FIGURATIVE MEANS OF THE RUSSIAN LANGUAGE

1. PHONETIC MEANS

Visual and expressive means are present at different levels language system. At the level of phonetics, such figurative and expressive means as speech sounds, word stress, rhythm and rhyme. Phonics studies the stylistic function of these means. Phonics is also called the sound organization of speech.

^ Euphony of speech. Speech should be euphonious, that is, easy to pronounce and pleasant to the ear, which is achieved mainly by the perfect combination of vowels and consonants in the text, as well as the predominance of musical (“beautiful”) sounds.

Vowels, sonorants and most voiced consonants are considered musical sounds. Non-musical sounds are noisy voiceless sounds, especially hissing [w], [ch] and whistling [s], [s"], as well as voiced hissing and whistling [zh], [z], [z"].

The use of musical sounds, which in relation to non-musical noisy deaf sounds makes up 74.5%, gives speech melodiousness and beauty of sound. Thus, in Yesenin’s line “Snowy plain, white moon, our side is covered with a shroud,” combinations of sounds are easily pronounced, short words alternate with long ones, the intonation is melodic and smooth. All this creates euphony, or euphony.

Euphony can also be achieved by combining several consonants. In Russian, such combinations often consist of two, sometimes three consonants, for example: ford, fight, adult, line. This combination of consonants does not contradict the laws of euphony. But the combination of four or more consonants at the junction of two words disrupts the euphony of speech, for example: The Minister met with the students; cordiality of meetings.

Typically, combinations of two consonants are found at the beginning or in the middle of a word, for example: snapshot, glass, cheerful. This arrangement of sounds does not disturb the euphony. But the accumulation of consonant sounds at the end of a word makes articulation difficult. It occurs in short adjectives and in the form genitive case plural nouns, for example: kind, musty, round, callous; fraternities Euphony is restored if a fluent vowel appears between the consonants, for example: blesn - blesny, beautiful - beautiful (cf.: blesn, beautiful).

In the Russian language, combinations of consonants predominate, built according to the law of ascending sonority - noisy + sonorant: gr, dr, cl, pl, cm, zn, zl, tl. Such combinations are more often found at the beginning and in the middle of a word, for example: thunder, pogrom, friend, girlfriend, treasure, pledge, fruit, produce, know, know, anger, goats, broom. All this creates euphony. Such combinations rarely appear at the end of a word, for example: rod, look, view.

For the Russian language, combinations like nd, mb are uncharacteristic, since in them sonorants precede noisy ones, for example: pretzel, ice cream.

In Russian speech, euphony is supported in other ways. Yes, for the sake of euphony

One of the consonant sounds is not pronounced, for example: honestly, late, hello;

Prepositions with the sound o are used, for example: to me, in all, above me, about me, under me, with me;

Syllabic sonorants are pronounced, for example: minister, cry, illness;

Phonetic changes are used in foreign words, for example: bivouac - bivouac (an open-air troop camp for overnight or rest), Ioan - Ivan, Feodor - Fedor.

So, euphony is supported by the legitimate relationship of vowels and consonants in the text.

Cacophony of speech may appear:

When vowels meet on the edge of words (the so-called external gap), for example: ^ And in Ni and in her John (I. Selvinsky.) 1;

When identical (or similar) consonants are accumulated in a sentence, as well as when the same consonants are obsessively repeated, for example: Scilla is a forest plant that forms a background in the herbaceous layer of the forest in summer; Zina knew the local bays from childhood;

When used in speech only short or only long words, for example: ^ Grandfather was old, gray-haired, weak, decrepit; At the end of the investigation, an indictment is drawn up - in the first case, the sentence gives the impression of some blows, and in the second case, the sentence represents monotonous, sluggish speech;

When repeating the same or the same root words, for example: the following disadvantages should be noted... (tautology);

When using the same grammatical forms, for example: ^ Treatment of influenza patients with a new drug;

When using dissonant abbreviations, for example: LIPKH - Leningrad Institute for Advanced Training of Business Executives;

When using unsuccessful neologisms, for example: marriage, etiquette.

Sound recording. In artistic speech, sound writing is used, that is, the correspondence of the phonetic composition of the phrase to the depicted phenomenon.

Such types of sound writing as sound repetitions and onomatopoeia are used.

Among the sound repetitions, the following stands out:

Alliteration, i.e., repetition of the same or similar consonants, for example: ^ At midnight sometimes in the swamp wilderness you can barely hear the reeds rustling silently (K. Balmont.) - [w] creates the sound impression of the rustling of reeds;

Assonance is the repetition of the same vowels, for example: ^ I while away my life. My crazy, deaf one: today I triumph soberly, and tomorrow I cry and sing (A. Blok.) - the repetition of the vowel [u] creates a depressing, depressing impression; Quiet Ukrainian night. The sky is transparent. The stars are shining. The air does not want to overcome its drowsiness (A. Pushkin.) - [a], [o] sound openly and joyfully;

Anaphora - repetition of the same initial combinations of sounds, for example: ^ Bridges demolished by a thunderstorm, coffins from a washed-out cemetery float through the streets! (A. Pushkin.); The golden stars dozed off, the mirror of the backwater trembled (S. Yesenin);

Epiphora - repetition of final sounds in words, for example: ^ On a blue evening, on a moonlit evening, I was once beautiful and young (S. Yesenin.);

Joint - repetition of the final and initial sounds adjacent words, for example: A cloak flaunting a hole (M. Tsvetaeva.).

Onomatopoeia is the use of words of a certain sound to create auditory impressions - rustling, clicking, strumming, rattling, chirping, etc., for example: In intervals of perfect silence, the rustling of last year's leaves was heard, moving from the melting of the earth and from the growth of grass (L. Tolstoy .) - the sound [w] conveys quiet muffled sounds; The stalls and the chairs, everything is boiling. In the paradise they splash impatiently, and, having risen, the curtain makes a noise (A. Pushkin) - the repetition of sounds [р], [п] conveys the increasing noise in the theater before the start of the performance, and the repetition of sounds [з], [ш], [с] creates the auditory impression of the noise of a rising curtain.

Among onomatopoeias, onomatopoeias stand out, i.e. words whose sound resembles the processes they denote. They call sounds made by humans, animals, inanimate nature, for example: gasp, giggle, groan; chirp, meow, hiss, cackle, crow, creak, rustle, clatter, tick, strum, rattle; strum (on a balalaika), crunch (twigs).

Sound-like words are also used that do not imitate sounds, but with their expressiveness in sound help to convey phenomena figuratively, for example: fight, roughly, scream, tear - are pronounced sharply; maiden, cling, dear, bliss - pronounced softly; quieter, you hear - the pronunciation resembles a rustle.

The selection of vocabulary that is consonant with the leading word of the text creates sound images. Thus, in the poem “Birch” by S. A. Yesenin, the artistic image of the birch is enhanced by means of sound writing - the repetition of sounds [b] - [r] in words of close sound.

The sound expressiveness of speech is helped by word stress and intonation. Stress, i.e. emphasizing with greater force and longer duration the voice of one of the syllables of a non-monosyllabic word, is a very important element sounding speech. The means of expressing syntactic meanings and emotional-expressive coloring are melody (raising and lowering the voice), rhythm (alternation of stressed and unstressed, long and short syllables), intensity (strength and weakness of pronunciation), tempo (speed or slowness), timbre (sound coloring). ) speech, phrasal and logical stress(highlighting speech segments or individual words in a phrase), for example: Do not wander, do not crush the quinoa in the crimson bushes and do not look for traces, with a sheaf of your oat hair you will be with me forever (S. Yesenin.).

The phonetic expressiveness of poetic speech is facilitated by rhyme - the repetition of individual sounds or sound complexes connecting the endings of two or more lines, for example: And I began to dream of my youth, and you, as if alive, and you... And I began to dream of being carried away by the wind, the rain, darkness (A. Blok.).

^ 2. LEXICAL MEANS

A trope is a word, phrase or sentence used figuratively to create an image.

The trope is based on a combination of two names: direct (traditional) and figurative (situational). These two semantic plans are linked into a single whole, creating an image, while the function of figurative characteristics prevails over the function of the name.

So, the word eagle names a bird, but it is also used to characterize a person who has the qualities of an eagle - courage, vigilance, etc. In the sentence The audience is making noise, the name of the room is transferred to the listeners in this room.

Tropes are used in various functional styles. But their main area of application is fiction and journalism. Using tropes in everyday life colloquial speech depends on the individuality of the interlocutors, the topic of conversation and the communication situation. Trails in scientific style usually terminated, for example: corona of the sun, metal fatigue, heart valve, pendulum pitch. The use of figurative means is allowed in some genres of business style (in diplomatic documents, in communiqués), for example: White House - meaning “US government”.

The tropes include: comparison, epithet (simple tropes), metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, hyperbole, litotes, irony, allegory, personification, periphrasis (complex tropes).

A comparison is a type of trope in which one object is explained by comparing it with another object. For example: ^ Like a huge dung beetle, the black tank was crawling buzzing (A. Surkov.). All three components of comparison are named here: what is being compared (tank); what it is compared to (dung beetle); the characteristic by which they compare (creeped).

The comparison is expressed by various means, namely:

A comparative phrase or subordinate clause introduced by conjunctions as, as if, as if, as if, exactly, exactly, like, as if, similar to, etc., for example: The moon rose very crimson and gloomy, as if sick (A. Chekhov.); We opened Marx every volume as
in our own house we open the shutters (V. Mayakovsky);

The form of the comparative degree of an adjective or adverb, for example: ^ Under it is a stream of lighter azure (M. Lermontov.);

The form of the instrumental case, for example: ... And Autumn, a quiet widow, enters her motley mansion (I. Bunin.);

By lexical means - with the help of words like, similar, reminds, etc., for example: Maple leaves, like paws, stood out sharply on the yellow sand of the alleys (A. Chekhov.); The pine trees rustled importantly overhead, and their noise was like water falling in the distance (A. Tolstoy); The shape of the mountain partly resembles the cap used to cover household teapots (I. Andronikov.);

Application, for example: ^ Dear hands - a pair of swans - dive into the gold of my hair (S. Yesenin.);

Nominal predicate, for example: Lovely abyss: abyss - delight (V. Mayakovsky); People are boats, albeit on land (V. Mayakovsky);

An adverbial adverb, for example: ^ Oleinik stood up, listened, like a cat, and cautiously looked around the forest thicket (M. Bubennov.);

A connecting construction introduced by a conjunction like this (usually an extended comparison), for example: I live sad, lonely and waiting for my end to come: so struck by the late cold, like a storm the winter whistle is heard, alone on a naked branch a belated leaf trembles (A. Pushkin.) .

The so-called negative comparisons characteristic of works of folklore (and for stylization as folk poetry) are highlighted, for example: Not a flock of ravens flew onto piles of smoldering bones, - beyond the Volga, at night, a gang of daring people gathered around the lights (A. Pushkin.).

An epithet is a type of trope that figuratively defines an object or action.

An epithet is usually based on a comparison, metaphor or metonymy. Thus, the epithets sugar (snow), swan (snow) give a figurative characteristic of an object in the form of a hidden comparison. In the sentence And we, poet, did not understand you, did not understand the infantile sadness in your seemingly forged poems (V. Bryusov), the epithet forged emphasizes in the concept not only its inherent attribute, but also transfers a new quality to it from another concept. This is a metaphorical epithet.

According to their origin, epithets can be general linguistic (deaf vaults, cherished thoughts, lightning-fast decision), or individually authorial (skinny radiance, vain decay - in A. S. Pushkin; ruddy exclamation, lively radiance, curly trace - in A. A. Fet) and folk-poetic (good fellow, wild little head, beautiful maiden, white hands, blue sea).

Epithets perform a stylistic function of strengthening, clarifying or contrasting, for example: black melancholy, mirror surface; motley anxiety, cheerful songs; inseparable enemies, a living corpse.

Epithets are most often expressed by adjectives, for example: ^ The joyful ray of a young day has not yet penetrated into the gorge (M. Lermontov.); Yes! Now it's decided. Without returning, I left my native fields, the poplars will no longer ring with winged leaves above me (S. Yesenin.).

Epithets expressed by adjectives can be substantivized, for example: ^ Ineffable, blue, tender... My land is quiet after storms, after thunderstorms, and my soul - a boundless field - breathes the smell of honey and roses (S. Yesenin.).

An epithet can also be a qualitative adverb with -о and a gerund (adverbial), a noun in the genitive case (inconsistent definition), a noun in the function of an appendix or predicate, a pronoun, for example: From under a bush, a silver lily of the valley nods its head to me in a friendly manner (M. Lermontov. ); The waves rush, thundering and sparkling (F. Tyutchev); Magic land! There, in the old days, the brave ruler of satire, Fonvizin, the friend of freedom, shone (A. Pushkin); But our northern summer, a caricature of southern winters, flashes and disappears (A. Pushkin.); And such a month in the sky - even if you pick up needles (M. Isakovsky.).

There is a distinction between a figurative definition (epithet) and a logical one, i.e. objective, indicating features concepts and not containing figurative characteristics, for example: white snow.

But in the sentence Black Evening. White snow (A. Blok.) The adjective white can be considered both as a logical definition and as an epithet, since in this context it performs a figurative and expressive function (along with the epithet black evening). The logical definition has an expressive meaning in combination with metaphor words, for example: revolver barking (cf.: shooting from a revolver), shackled neighing (cf.: ringing of shackles).

In a number of cases, epithets are not tropes, since the words expressing them retain their meaning in the text. direct meaning, for example: Assault nights of Spassk (P. Parfenov.) - the epithet assault in its meaning should refer to the word Spassk (cf. assault on Spassk).

A metaphor is a type of trope in which a word or figure of speech is used in a figurative meaning based on analogy, similarity in some respect between two objects or phenomena.

The convergence of objects or phenomena occurs according to various signs, namely:

By color: golden autumn - cf.: gold coin; silver poplar - cf.: silver glass holder;

Shape: smoke ring - cf.: ring in the door; crane well - cf.: the crane is flying; knight in chess - cf.: black horse;

By function: janitor - windshield wiper of a car - cf.: janitor - worker at the house; airplane wing - cf.: bird wing; fountain pen nib - cf.: quill pen;

By location to something: the sole of a mountain - cf.: the sole of a boot; tail of a comet - cf.: tail of an animal; river branch - cf.: coat sleeve;

According to impression or feeling: black envy - cf.: black shawl; warm welcome- Wed: warm suit; speech flows - cf.: water flows;

By overall assessment: clear thought - cf.: clear star, etc.

A metaphor is based on an unnamed comparison of an object with some other object based on a common feature, for example: the sun is rising, difficult character, cheerful wind.

In a metaphor, there is only that with which the object is compared. However, the missing components of comparison (the object that is being compared and the attribute by which they are comparing) are easily implied, for example: And dully, as if from a handout, when they throw a stone at her laughter, the dog’s eyes rolled like golden stars into the snow (S. Yesenin.).

Various parts of speech can act as metaphors: verbs, nouns, adjectives; for example: winter sings, spring has come; heart fire, poster language; golden time, apt word.

In addition to a simple metaphor (abbreviated comparison), there are so-called expanded metaphors, for example: ^ The golden grove dissuaded with a cheerful birch language (S. Yesenin.).

There are different types of metaphors: poetic, fresh, permanent and linguistic.

Poetic metaphors are figurative names for phenomena of reality that arose on the basis of some unusual and elusive similarity. Novelty, freshness are one of the main signs of such metaphors, for example: You, my spring (i.e., youth) have humbled the pompous dreams (A. Pushkin); Darling, let's sit next to each other and look into each other's eyes. I want to listen to a sensual blizzard under a gentle gaze (S. Yesenin.); the dawn of freedom; the heart plays, a silvery voice.

Fresh are metaphors of widespread use with pre-prepared imagery, for example: golden autumn, hot season, gray hair, warmth of meetings, metal in the voice. They are accompanied by the so-called constant (folk-poetic) metaphors, for example: darling, swan, falcon, thunderstorm (something threatening).

Linguistic (erased, fossilized) metaphors are direct names of phenomena of reality and do not belong to the means of verbal imagery, for example: the back of a sofa, the hand of a clock, the arm of a river, a clear thought, a clock is running.

From frequent use, metaphors are “erased” and turned into cliches, standards or terms, for example: high boundaries, green street - patterns that have lost their former imagery; blue screen, white gold, black gold- terminological metaphors; pendulum step, official, contracting parties - terms.

Metonymy is a type of trope that consists of transferring the name of one phenomenon of reality to another based on their contiguity.

Metonymy is based on a comparison not of similar ones (as in metaphor), but of real related phenomena. This connection could be:

Between content and containing, for example: ^ Well, eat another plate, my dear! (I. Krylov.) - cf.: porcelain plate; The audience is attentive - cf.: bright audience; The dish is delicious - cf: the dish is beautiful;

Between a material and a product made from this material, for example: ^ Maxim Petrovich: he ate not only on silver, but on gold (A. Griboedov.) - cf.: the cost of gold, silver;

Between an object and the owner of this object, for example: ^ A cadet runs in: “It’s stupid to fight!” Thirteen squeals: - Surrender! Give up! - And at the door there are pea coats, overcoats, sheepskin coats (V. Mayakovsky), that is, sailors, soldiers, workers; famous bass - Wed: thick bass;

Between the author and his work, for example: ^ And in the travel bag - matches and tobacco, Tikhonov, Selvinsky, Pasternak (E. Bagritsky), i.e. works of Tikhonov, Selvinsky, Pasternak; I’m reading Sholokhov - Wed: I’m reading Sholokhov’s works; Although we know that Eugene stopped loving reading a long time ago, he excluded several works from disgrace; The singer Giaour and Juan, [Byron] and two or three more novels with him (A. Pushkin);

Between an action or its result and the instrument of this action, for example: ^ And the boyar writes all night long; his pen breathes revenge (A.K. Tolstoy); The feather feeds him - cf.: steel feather; treatise- Wed: physical labor;

Between the scene of action and the people who are in this place, for example: ^ The whole village laughed at him - cf.: the village of Slavyanka; Factory and village, meet the delegates (V. Mayakovsky.);

Between an action and the place or producers of this action, for example: border crossing - cf.: underground passage; defense of a dissertation - cf.: play in defense;

Between the object of knowledge and the branch of knowledge, for example: vocabulary - vocabulary and vocabulary - the science of vocabulary.

Like metaphor, metonymy can be linguistic and poetic, for example: dietary table, department of linguistics - linguistic metonymies; a cheerful novel, the steppe (i.e., birds in the steppe) sings - poetic metonymies.

Metonymy should be distinguished from metaphor: metaphor can easily be paraphrased into comparison, for example: ^ A silver sickle hung in the sky - cf.: In the sky the moon hung like a silver sickle, but this cannot be done with metonymy; the compared objects in a metaphor must necessarily be similar (cf.: the moon is a sickle), but with metonymy there is no such similarity.

Synecdoche is one of the tropes, a type of metonymy, based on the transfer of meaning from one phenomenon to another based on the quantitative relationship between them. In synecdoche it is possible to use:

Singular instead of plural and vice versa, for example: ^ I don’t know another country like this, where a person breathes so freely (V. Lebedev-Kumach.) - instead of people;

A definite number instead of an indefinite number, for example: Donkeys! Should I tell you a hundred times? Receive him, call him, ask him, say that he is at home, that he is very glad (A. Griboyedov.) - instead of many times;

A generic concept instead of a specific one and vice versa, for example: ^ On the entire planet, comrades people, declare: there will be no war! (V. Mayakovsky.) - instead of land; They didn’t even save me a ruble (V. Mayakovsky) - instead of money;

A part instead of a whole, for example: Do you need anything? - In the roof for my family (A. Herzen) - instead of in the house.

Synecdoche is used in various styles - colloquial, journalistic, business, artistic, for example: ^ Crucian carp is not found here; The red warrior must win (N. Tikhonov.); The plant needs a new model of milling cutter; A discerning buyer; The defense demands the acquittal of the defendant; Well, sit down, luminary (V. Mayakovsky).

Hyperbole is a trope, a figurative expression that exaggerates any action, object, phenomenon - their size, strength, beauty, meaning, for example: The sunset burned with one hundred and forty suns (V. Mayakovsky).

There are hyperboles-epithets, hyperboles-comparisons, hyperboles-metaphors, for example: ^ Steamboat in tier lights (V. Lugovskoy.); See how calm he is! Like the pulse of a dead man (V. Mayakovsky); It will pass - as if the sun will shine! If she looks, she’ll give her a ruble!.. I saw how she mows: with just a wave, the mop is ready! (N. Nekrasov.).

Litotes, or reverse hyperbole, is a trope, a figurative expression that understates the size, strength, or significance of what is being described, for example:

^ How tiny cows are, there are, indeed, smaller than the head of a pin (I. Krylov.); The sky seemed like a sheepskin (Proverb.).

Litota most often appears in the form of an epithet, for example: a small man; Tom Thumb; a hut on chicken legs.

Irony is a trope that consists of using a word or expression in the opposite sense to its literal meaning, for the purpose of ridicule, for example: Look what Samson is like! (about a weak, frail person).

Evil irony is called sarcasm, for example: ^ What an honor for us, for all of Rus'! Yesterday's slave, Tatar, son-in-law of Malyuta, son-in-law of the executioner and himself an executioner at heart, will take the crown and barmas of Monomakh... (A. Pushkin.).

Less evil and good-natured irony is called humor, for example: ^ Ay, Moska! know that she is strong, that she barks at the Elephant! (I. Krylov.).

Allegory is a trope that allegorically expresses abstract concepts in specific artistic images.

Thus, in folk art, animals, objects, and phenomena act as carriers of human properties, for example: ^ The lion is the embodiment of power; Fox - tricks; Hare - cowardice; Bear - brute force; Snake - deceit; Donkey - stupidity, stubbornness; Wolf - greed.

Expressions like autumn has come - “old age has arrived”, the road is covered with snow - “there is no return to the past” are also allegorical. These are common language allegories.

Allegory is used in fiction. Many writers have created such generalizing images that they have become allegorical and allegorical, for example: Gogol's Plyushkin is the embodiment of greed; Moliere's Tartuffe is the embodiment of hypocrisy; Don Quixote by Cervantes is the embodiment of nobility, selflessness and courage; Mayakovsky's "Bathhouse" is the embodiment of the concept of useful criticism; “Bedbug” is the embodiment of philistinism. These are individual author's allegories.

Allegory is sometimes used in journalism. IN business style allegory does not apply.

Personification is a type of trope in which inanimate objects and abstract concepts are endowed with human properties - human feelings, actions, thoughts, speech. For example: Without a person, a tree is bored; Her nurse lay down next to her in the bedchamber - silence (A. Blok.); Rumors crawled on their haunches, judged, decided, whispering (S. Yesenin.); What are you howling about, night wind? What are you complaining about so madly? (F. Tyutchev.); The desert listens to God, and star speaks to star (M. Lermontov).

The complete likening of an inanimate object to a person is called personification, for example: ^ Spring cried over us with its bitter tears (A. Blok.); Lightning raised its antlers like a deer, and they got up from the hay and ate from their hands (B. Pasternak) - spring and lightning are endowed with real human characteristics.

Personification is used in artistic speech, in journalism and scientific style, for example: ^ The bird cherry tree is sleeping in a white cape (S. Yesenin.); The Five Year Plan is sweeping across the country; Air heals.

Periphrasis (or periphrase) is one of the tropes consisting of replacing the name of a phenomenon of reality with a description of its essential features or an indication of its character traits. For example: a camel is a ship of the desert; Lion is the king of the animals; Leningrad is a city on the Neva; M. Gorky - the first proletarian writer, author of the novel “Mother”, petrel of the revolution; autumn - sad time! The charm of the eyes (A. Pushkin.).

^ Use of polysemantic words in speech,

homonyms and antonyms

Polysemy is the presence of several meanings for a word that are interconnected.

So, the word run away has the following meanings:

Run away: My first movement was to run away (I. Turgenev.);

Moving quickly, moving away: The waves from the steamer silently ran into the distance, shaking pieces of pine bark (K. Paustovsky.);

To flee, to hide from someone or something: All of them [the French] abandoned each other, abandoned all their burdens, artillery, half the people and ran away (L. Tolstoy);

To quickly disappear, disappear: The day has breathed coolness, the shadows of the night are fleeing (A. Kuprin.);

To get rid of, to evade, to get rid of: But how glad he would be to free himself and run away from other worries (F. Dostoevsky);

Stop life together with someone, to leave someone: “My wife ran away,” answered Mikhailo Yegorych (A. Pisemsky.);

Having boiled, fermented, overflowed, run over the edge: - ^ Oh, this is milk for me! - the cook complained every time. - Just before you finish watching, it will run away (D. Mamin-Sibiryak.).

The first three meanings are direct, the fourth and fifth are figurative, the sixth and seventh are stylistically colored (colloquial).

Opposite meanings may appear in a word, for example: [Aleksashka] was torn out without mercy... Aleksashka lay for a day in a hot place near the chimney and walked away and started talking (A.N. Tolstoy); walked away - “came to his senses”; “Kolya died: ...Thank God, he passed away,” said the grandmother (M. Gorky); walked away - “died”.

The presence of several meanings for words (about 80% of such words in the Russian language) enriches the language, and the existence of not only direct but also figurative meanings allows them to be used as an expressive and figurative means (metaphors, metonymies, synecdoche).

For stylistic purposes, the direct meanings of polysemantic words are also used, for example: ^ The poet starts talking from afar. The poet takes his speech far (M. Tsvetaeva.). The word starts in the first sentence means “starts to talk,” and in the second it means “takes you to the wrong place.”

Some words can be used with different meanings in different styles of speech, for example: ^ Meanwhile, Luzgin took a shift from a tall, big-nosed blacksmith (B. Polevoy.); accepted - received into his jurisdiction from the one who passed (neutral); The owner called and ordered to accept the remains of dinner (I. Turgenev.); accept - remove, take away (colloquial).

Different meanings of the same word appear in context, in combination with other words. So, in a sentence ^ Read, envy, I am a citizen Soviet Union(V. Mayakovsky.) The word citizen has the meaning: “a person belonging to the permanent population of a given state”; in the sentence In the compartment, two middle-aged citizens were talking, the same word is used in the meaning: “an adult, a man”; in a sentence Be a citizen! Serving art, live for the good of your neighbor (N. Nekrasov.) This word means: “a person who subordinates his personal interests to public ones, serving his homeland, the people”; in a sentence On the street... quite a lot of people gathered: the good citizens of the city of L. did not want to miss the opportunity to look at the visiting guests (I. Turgenev.) The word citizens has the meaning: “residents of the city, townspeople.”

In the first two examples, the word citizen is used as neutral, in the third - as high, in the fourth - as obsolete.

Polysemy lies at the heart of the pun, in which the direct and the direct are closely intertwined. figurative meaning words. A pun is a play on words based on their sound similarity, for example: Tell me, what mark will you leave? A mark to wipe the parquet and look askance after, or an invisible lasting mark in someone else's soul for many years? (L. Martynov.). The word footprint in the first sentence is ambiguous, in the second sentence it means “a footprint on any surface,” and in the third it means “the consequences of someone’s activity.”

A play on words can lead to a paradox, that is, to a position that contradicts (sometimes only externally) common sense, for example: One is nonsense, one is zero; one - even if very important - will not lift a simple five-inch log, especially a five-story house (V. Mayakovsky); one is an individual person, zero is about an insignificant person of no importance.

Homonyms are words that are identical in sound and spelling, but completely different in meaning.

Unlike polysemantic words, homonyms have no connection with each other in meaning. For example, in sentences ^ Suddenly there is noise. They came, they called. They! There is no hope! Keys, locks, constipations sound (A. Pushkin.); The keys were jumping over the stones, the keys were making noise like cold water (M. Lermontov). The words keys - “a tool for locking and unlocking locks” and keys - “source, spring” are homonyms.

Homonyms are words of one part of speech that coincide in sound and spelling in all or only part of their inherent forms, for example: a bird's nest - a nest of words; onion - “weapon” and onion - “plant”.

Homonyms are accompanied by homoforms, homophones and homographs.

Homoforms are different sounding forms of words of the same or different parts speeches, for example: new technology - a technician was invited; three houses - three back. Homophones are words with the same sound, but different meanings and spellings, for example: hammer - young, inert - bony. Homographs are words with the same spelling, different meaning and sound, for example: castle - castle, squirrel - squirrel. Some of them have different stylistic colors, for example: dobycha - neutral; mining - professional.

Close to the phenomena of homonymy are the facts of sound coincidence of a word and part of a word or several words, for example: ^ We can grow up to a hundred years without getting old (V. Mayakovsky).

Homonymy and related phenomena are often used to create puns and homonymous rhymes, for example: ^ Whatever he eats, he wants to eat (Proverb.); Narrow chrome presses on your feet. One day you will callus and become lame (V. Mayakovsky); ...I must stand, I stand for everyone, I will pay for everyone, I will pay for everyone (V. Mayakovsky.); Who shot the head of the bow with an arrow? I don’t say a word, I’m dumb, as if the shot wasn’t mine (Ya. Kozlovsky).

The erroneous use of polysemantic words and homonyms leads to ambiguity, absurdity of the statement, to unwanted play on words, to inappropriate comedy, for example: Teachers’ meetings took place in the bushes of the Pavlograd region - cf.: bushes - “plants” and bushes - “group associations of organizations, enterprises and etc.”; The workshop does not accept orders for belts: the lower back is sick (Crocodile magazine) - cf.: lower back - “part of the back slightly below the belt” and lower back - “master of making belts”.

Antonyms are words with opposite meanings. Such words have special linguistic indicators.

Firstly, they express logically opposite but correlative concepts, for example: work - rest, deep - shallow, love - hate, fun - sad.

Secondly, they are regularly opposed to each other. This means that the name of one member of an antonymous pair evokes in our minds the idea of another, opposite member. For example, the words truth, strong, joy, long ago, come, up are associated with the contrasting words lie, weak, grief, recently, leave, down.

Thirdly, antonym words are characterized by the same or similar lexical compatibility, i.e., the ability to be associated with the same words. Thus, the antonyms high - low are freely combined with nouns that name objects of a certain size: house, pillar, oak, table, closet, haystack, etc.

Antonyms can be many qualitative adjectives, nouns of most categories, verbs, adverbs, some pronouns and prepositions, for example: white - black, warm - cold, dawn - dark, dry - wet, everyone - no one, under - above.

A polysemantic word can have several antonyms, for example: fresh - stale (bread), fresh - salty(cucumber), fresh - stale (air), fresh - dirty (collar), fresh - warm (wind), fresh - old (trace).

In addition to linguistic antonyms, that is, regularly reproduced and enshrined in the dictionary, there are also speech antonyms that arise in a certain context or in a specific speech situation, for example: You may not be a poet, but you must be a citizen (N. Nekrasov.); They got along. Wave and stone, poetry and prose, ice and fire are not so different from each other (A. Pushkin).

The use of antonyms gives expressiveness to speech and contributes to a comprehensive clarification of the concept. Antonyms are a bright stylistic device that underlies such techniques as antithesis and oxymoron.

Antithesis is a stylistic turn in which sharply contrasting concepts are contrasted, for example: ^ You are wretched, you are abundant, you are powerful, you are powerless, Mother Russia! (N. Nekrasov.).

An oxymoron is a stylistic device consisting of combining two antonymic concepts that logically exclude one another, for example: ringing silence, sweet sorrow, bitter joy, eloquent silence, optimistic tragedy, distant close; at A.A. Bloka: He looks into your eyes with impudent modesty.

Antonyms lie at the core

Introduction

Rhetoric - the theory of eloquence, the science of oratory. This is the science of the art of constructing speech, the rules of its delivery in order to have the desired impact on the listener. In addition to the lexical meaning, each word also contains other components. Words, therefore, can differ in stylistic coloring; they can be elevated, neutral and lowered (eyes, eyes, peepers). The word can denote both a neutral phenomenon (meeting) and give it an assessment (gathering).

Language means of contact are special words and expressions that activate the attention and thinking of listeners. Through them it is established Feedback. Thanks to it, in turn, you can see how the audience reacts to the speaker’s words (exclamation, approving nod, interested, lively look, approving or disapproving remark, etc.).

The figurative means of the Russian language play a vital role in public speaking; in my work I will try to study in detail their main elements.

Phonetic means

Visual and expressive means are present at different levels of the language system. At the phonetics level, figurative and expressive means such as speech sounds, word stress, rhythm and rhyme are used. Phonics studies the stylistic function of these means. Phonics is also called the sound organization of speech.

Euphony of speech. Speech should be euphonious, that is, easy to pronounce and pleasant to the ear, which is achieved mainly by the perfect combination of vowels and consonants in the text, as well as the predominance of musical (“beautiful”) sounds.

Typically, combinations of two consonants are found at the beginning or in the middle of a word, for example: snapshot, glass, cheerful. This arrangement of sounds does not disturb the euphony. But the accumulation of consonant sounds at the end of a word makes articulation difficult. This occurs in short adjectives and in the genitive form of the plural of nouns, for example: kind, musty, round, callous; fraternities Euphony is restored if a fluent vowel appears between the consonants, for example: blesn - blesen, beautiful - beautiful (cf.: blesn, beautiful).

For the Russian language, combinations like nd, mb are uncharacteristic, since in them sonorants precede noisy ones, for example: pretzel, ice cream.

In Russian speech, euphony is supported in other ways. Yes, for the sake of euphony

One of the consonant sounds is not pronounced, for example: honestly, late, hello;

Prepositions with the sound o are used, for example: to me, in all, above me, about me, under me, with me;

Syllabic sonorants are pronounced, for example: minister, cry, illness;

Phonetic changes are used in foreign words, for example: bivouac - bivouac (an open-air troop camp for overnight or rest), Ioan - Ivan, Feodor - Fedor.

So, euphony is supported by the legitimate relationship of vowels and consonants in the text. Cacophony of speech may appear:

When vowels meet on the edge of words (the so-called external gap), for example: And in Ni and in her John (I. Selvinsky);

When using only short or only long words in speech, for example: Grandfather was old, gray-haired, weak, decrepit; At the end of the investigation, an indictment is drawn up - in the first case, the sentence gives the impression of some blows, and in the second case, the sentence represents monotonous, sluggish speech;

When repeating the same or the same root words, for example: the following disadvantages should be noted... (tautology);

When using the same grammatical forms, for example: Treatment of influenza patients with a new drug;

When using dissonant abbreviations, for example: LIPKH Leningrad Institute for Advanced Training of Business Executives;

When using unsuccessful neologisms, for example: marriage, etiquette.

Sound recording. In artistic speech, sound writing is used, that is, the correspondence of the phonetic composition of the phrase to the depicted phenomenon.

Such types of sound writing as sound repetitions and onomatopoeia are used.

Among the sound repetitions, the following stands out:

Alliteration, i.e. repetition of identical or similar consonants, for example: At midnight sometimes in the swamp wilderness the reeds rustle faintly and silently (K. Balmont.) - [w] creates the sound impression of the rustling of reeds;

Assonance is the repetition of identical vowels, for example: I while away my life. My crazy, deaf one: today I triumph soberly, and tomorrow I cry and sing (A. Blok.) - the repetition of the vowel [u] creates a depressing, depressing impression; Quiet Ukrainian night. The sky is transparent. The stars are shining. The air does not want to overcome its drowsiness (A. Pushkin.) - [a], [o] sound openly and joyfully;

Anaphora is the repetition of the same initial combinations of sounds, for example: Bridges demolished by a thunderstorm, coffins from a washed-out cemetery floating through the streets! (A. Pushkin.);

Epiphora is the repetition of final sounds in words, for example: On a blue evening, on a moonlit evening, I was once beautiful and young (S. Yesenin.);

A junction is a repetition of the final and initial sounds of adjacent words, for example: A cloak flaunting a hole (M. Tsvetaeva).

Onomatopoeia is the use of words of a certain sound to create auditory impressions - rustling, clicking, strumming, rattling, chirping, etc., for example: In the intervals of perfect silence, the rustling of last year’s leaves was heard, moving from the melting of the earth and from the growth of grass (L. Tolstoy.) - the sound [w] conveys quiet muffled sounds; The stalls and the chairs, everything is boiling. In the paradise they splash impatiently, and, having risen, the curtain makes a noise (A. Pushkin) - the repetition of sounds [р], [п] conveys the increasing noise in the theater before the start of the performance, and the repetition of sounds [з], [ш], [с] ] creates the auditory impression of the noise of a rising curtain.

Thus, in the poem “Birch” by S. A. Yesenin, the artistic image of the birch is enhanced by means of sound writing - by repeating the sounds [b] - [r] in words of close sound.

The sound expressiveness of speech is helped by word stress and intonation. Stress, i.e. emphasizing with greater force and longer duration the voice of one of the syllables of a non-monosyllabic word, is a very important element of spoken speech. The means of expressing syntactic meanings and emotional-expressive coloring are melody (raising and lowering the voice), rhythm (alternation of stressed and unstressed, long and short syllables), intensity (strength and weakness of pronunciation), tempo (speed or slowness), timbre (sound coloring). ) speech, phrasal and logical stress (emphasizing speech segments or individual words in a phrase), for example: Do not wander, do not crush the crimson quinoa in the bushes and do not look for a trace, with a sheaf of your oat hair you will be with me forever (S. Yesenin.).

The phonetic expressiveness of poetic speech is facilitated by the rhyme repetition of individual sounds or sound complexes connecting the endings of two or more lines, for example: And I began to dream of my youth, and you, as if alive, and you... And I began to dream of being carried away from the wind, rain, darkness (A. Blok.).

As you know, spoken speech is the main form of existence of language. The sound organization of speech and the aesthetic role of sounds are dealt with by a special branch of stylistics - phonics. Phonics evaluates the peculiarities of the sound structure of a language, determines the conditions of euphony characteristic of each national language, explores various techniques for enhancing the phonetic expressiveness of speech, and teaches the most perfect, artistically justified and stylistically appropriate sound expression of thought.

The sound expressiveness of speech lies primarily in its euphony, harmony, in the use of rhythm, rhyme, alliteration (repetition of the same or similar consonant sounds), assonance (repetition of vowel sounds) and other means. Phonics is primarily interested in the sound organization of poetic speech, in which the importance of phonetic means is especially great. Along with this, the sound expressiveness of artistic prose and some genres of journalism (primarily on radio and television) is also explored. In non-fiction speech, phonics solves the problem of the most appropriate sound organization language material, facilitating the precise expression of thoughts, since correct use phonetic means of language ensures quick (and without interference) perception of information, eliminates discrepancies, eliminates unwanted associations that interfere with the understanding of statements. For fluency of understanding, the euphony of speech is of great importance, i.e. a combination of sounds that is convenient for pronunciation (articulation) and pleasant to the ear (musicality). One of the ways to achieve sound harmony is a certain alternation of vowels and consonants. Moreover, most combinations of consonants contain the sounds [m], [n], [r], [l], which have high sonority. Consider, for example, one of the poems by A.S. Pushkin:

Driven by spring rays,

There is already snow from the surrounding mountains

Escaped through muddy streams

To the flooded meadows.

Nature's clear smile

Through a dream greets the morning of the year:

The skies are shining blue.

Still transparent, forests

It's like they're turning green.

Bee for field tribute

Flies from a wax cell...

The sound instrumentation of this poem is interesting. Here, first of all, there is a uniform combination of vowels and consonants (and their ratio itself is approximately the same: 60% consonants and 40% vowels); an approximately uniform combination of voiceless and voiced consonants; There are almost no cases of accumulation of consonants (only two words contain, respectively, three and four consonant sounds in a row ¾ [skvos'] and [fstr' and 'ch'aj't]. All these qualities together give the verse a special musicality and melody. They are inherent in the best prose works.

However, the euphony of speech can often be disrupted. There are several reasons for this, the most common of which is the accumulation of consonant sounds: a sheet of a defective book: [stbr], [ykn]; competition for adult builders: [revzr], [khstr]. Also M.V. Lomonosov advised “to avoid obscene and unpleasant to the ear combination of consonants, for example: of all the senses, the gaze is nobler, because six consonants, placed side by side ¾ vstv-vz, really stutter the tongue.” To create euphony, the number of sounds included in a consonantal combination, their quality and sequence are important. In the Russian language (this has been proven), the combination of consonant sounds obeys the laws of euphony. However, there are words that include a larger number of consonants compared to the normative ones: meeting, disheveled, stick; There are lexemes containing two or three consonant sounds at the end, which makes pronunciation much more difficult: spectrum, meter, ruble, callous, acquaintances, etc. Usually, when consonants coincide in oral speech, in such cases additional “syllabicity” develops, a syllabic vowel appears: [rubl’], [m’etar], etc. For example:

This Smury came to the theater two years ago... (Yu. Trifonov); A play was staged in Saratov, staged by Sergei Leonidovich back in the spring (Yu.

Trifonov);

The earth is bursting with heat.

The thermometer exploded. And on me

Rumbling, worlds crumble

Drops of mercury fire.

(E. Bagritsky)

The second reason that disrupts the euphony of speech is the accumulation of vowel sounds. Thus, the opinion that the more vowel sounds in a speech, the more harmonious it is, is incorrect. Vowels produce euphony only in combination with consonants. The combination of several vowel sounds in linguistics is called gaping; it significantly distorts the sound structure of Russian speech and makes articulation difficult. For example, the following phrases are difficult to pronounce: Letter from Olya and Igor; Such changes are observed in the aorist; the title of V. Khlebnikov's poem "The Lay of El".

The third reason for the violation of euphony is the repetition of identical combinations of sounds or identical words: ...They cause the collapse of relationships (N. Voronov). Here, in the words next to each other, the combination -sheni- is repeated.

True, in poetic speech it can be very difficult to distinguish between a violation of euphony and paronomasia - the deliberate play of words that are similar in sound. See for example: So we heard

quietly through,

transported during the first winter

the first song of winter.

(N. Kislik)

Colleague, employee,

Drinking buddy, interlocutor

How many of these COs!

Weightless without each other,

Carried by terrible times,

Let's get into these Soma

A squirrel in a wheel.

(V. Livshits)

Euphony is also reduced due to the monotonous rhythm of speech created by the predominance of monosyllabic or, on the contrary, polysyllabic words. One example is the creation of so-called palindromes (texts that have the same reading both from beginning to end and from end to beginning):

Frost in the knot, I climb with my gaze.

Nightingale's call, cartload of hair.

Wheel. Sorry for the luggage. Touchstone.

The sleigh, the raft and the cart, the call of the crowds and of us.

Gord doh, the move is slow.

And I lie there. Really?

(V. Khlebnikov)

Poor phonetic organization of speech, difficult articulation, and unusual sound of phrases distract the reader’s attention and interfere with the listening comprehension of the text. Russian poets and writers have always closely monitored the sound side of speech and noted the shortcomings of the sound design of a particular thought. For example, A.M. Gorky wrote that young authors often do not pay attention to the “sound vagaries” of living speech, and gave examples of violation of euphony: actresses with passionate looks; wrote poetry, cleverly choosing rhymes, etc. A.M. Gorky also noted that the annoying repetition of the same sounds is undesirable: She unexpectedly found that our relationship needed ¾ even necessary ¾ to be understood differently. V.V. Mayakovsky in the article "How to make poetry?" gives examples of combinations at the junction of words, when a new meaning arises that was not noticed by the authors of poetic texts; in other words, amphiboly arises at the phonetic level: “... in Utkin’s lyric poem, placed in “Spotlight”, there is a line:

he won't come just like that,

just as a summer swan will not come to winter lakes.

It turns out to be a certain “belly.”

Amphiboly at the sound level can also be noted in A. Voznesensky’s poem “Brighton Beach”: What is your fault, Willie?

What am I, Willie, to blame for?

Is it you, is it us? Are we, are you? ¾

Heaven doesn't speak.

The aesthetic perception of texts is disrupted when used in speech active participles present and past tenses such as trudged, trudged, winced, winced, rasped, as they seem dissonant.

Thus, every native speaker should try to avoid the obsessive repetition of identical and similar sounds, the use of dissonant word forms, difficult to pronounce combinations of sounds when connecting words, and skillfully use the expressive capabilities of the sounding side of speech.

Phonetic means of expression.

As you know, spoken speech is the main form of existence of language. The sound organization of speech and the aesthetic role of sounds are dealt with by a special branch of stylistics - phonics. Phonics evaluates the features of the sound structure of a language, determines the characteristics characteristic of each national language conditions of euphony, explores various techniques for enhancing the phonetic expressiveness of speech, teaches the most perfect, artistically justified and stylistically appropriate sound expression of thought.

The sound expressiveness of speech lies primarily in its euphony, harmony, in the use of rhythm, rhyme, alliteration (repetition of the same or similar consonant sounds), assonance (repetition of vowel sounds) and other means. Phonics is primarily interested in the sound organization of poetic speech, in which the importance of phonetic means is especially great. Along with this, the sound expressiveness of artistic prose and some genres of journalism (primarily on radio and television) is also explored. In non-literary speech, phonics solves the problem of the most appropriate sound organization of linguistic material, facilitating the accurate expression of thought, since the correct use of phonetic means of language ensures quick (and without interference) perception of information, eliminates discrepancies, and eliminates unwanted associations that interfere with the understanding of the statement. For fluency of understanding, the euphony of speech is of great importance, i.e. a combination of sounds that is convenient for pronunciation (articulation) and pleasant to the ear (musicality). One of the ways to achieve sound harmony is a certain alternation of vowels and consonants. Moreover, most combinations of consonants contain the sounds [m], [n], [r], [l], which have high sonority.

assonance (French assonance - consonance), reception sound recording; repetition of stressed vowel in in different words one speech segment. Poets use it in syllabonic and tonic verses to emphasize rhythm: “Happy And in, who will visit And l this m And r..." (F.I. Tyutchev, "Cicero"), "In the neighboring village O meh O kna O lt..." (A. A. Blok, "Factory"). alliteration (lat. alliteratio - consonance), means sound recording; repetition of the supporting consonant, i.e. immediately preceding the stressed vowel. Sometimes it also includes the repetition of the initial consonant in different words of the same speech segment. This separate type of alliteration was widespread in the poetic practice of those European peoples who used general form so-called “alliterative verse” (see Art. Tonic) and in languages where words had a fixed stress on the first syllable. Both of these types of consonant sounds - both initial and supporting - Russian. linguist O.M. Brik classified it as “pressure”, and then defined alliteration as the repetition of “pressure” consonants. The repetition of these consonants can be observed in the following lines " Bronze Horseman» A.S. Pushkin: Not V and in the air V asked and re V ate, cat l ohm cl okocha and cl killing... Types of alliteration also include repetition of various supporting consonants of one group (for example, labial or sonorant): “ M no way m I'll talk to you m ysliti...” (“The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”).