Military reform.

Ivan IV Vasilyevich (ruled 1533-1584) played an important role in strengthening the Russian centralized state. In January 1547, he accepted the title of king, which marked the transition to a new stage in the development of the state. At the beginning of the reign of Ivan IV, the Russian state extended from the White and Barents Seas in the north to the Ryazan fields in the south; from the shores of the Gulf of Finland and Smolensk in the west to the spurs of the Northern Urals in the east. The area of the country reached 2.8 million km2, and the population was 5-6 million people. The population of the capital city of Moscow was about 100 thousand people. The capital was the cultural and industrial center of the state, the core of those in power. In the sphere of foreign policy, the Moscow government brought to the fore the task of providing access to the Baltic Sea. The economic growth of the strengthening state urgently required connections with countries Western Europe and eliminating the threat from the Kazan Khanate, which with constant raids ravaged the Nizhny Novgorod, Murom and Ustyug outskirts of the state. In the middle of the 16th century. There were about 100 thousand Russian prisoners in the Khanate.

Under these conditions, in order to successfully solve the problems facing the Russian state, perestroika was required government controlled and the creation of a strong army on a different basis - there is an urgent need for civil and military reforms. And in the 50s. XVI century they were carried out.

Under Ivan IV, a major step was taken in the development of the local system. The streamlining of the military service of large feudal lords began with the verdict (decree) of 1550. It established the indisputable seniority of the great governor - the commander of the Big Regiment. The first governors of the regiments of the Right and Left Hands, the Guard and the Advance Regiments were subordinate to the Great Voivode. The subordination of the first regimental commanders corresponded to the subordination of the second. The verdict prohibited disputes about places (seniority) during the period of hostilities.

The decree did not completely abolish localism, which retained certain guarantees for the boyar aristocracy, from among which regiment commanders were appointed. However, when choosing governors for command positions, the tsar could now be guided not only by the nobleman’s nobility, but also by his military skill.

The reform of the noble militia was even more important. According to the Code of Service of 1556, for every 100 quarters (150 dessiatines) of good land (this allotment was called salary), one nobleman was supposed to appear - a service man on horseback, in full armor, and on a long journey - with two horses. All patrimonial owners were also obliged to perform military service according to the standards established by the Code for landowners and became servicemen for life. In addition to the estate, service people received a cash salary, which was usually issued before the campaign. Nobles were punished for evading service, including confiscation of their estates. The government of Ivan IV, having given the local system a harmonious military organization and equalizing the service of patrimonial landowners with landowners, created a large cavalry army, ready to go on a campaign at the first request.

The Code of 1556 finally formalized the local recruitment system. It created interest among the nobility in service and attracted a large number of feudal lords to military service. The noble cavalry was distinguished by its military training, quick actions and swift attacks on the battlefield. It fully met the requirements of the growing Russian state.

Nevertheless, the local cavalry, despite its large numbers, did not solve the main problem. The tsar could not keep it in constant readiness for military action, and the presence of large feudal lords (princes, boyars) in the militia army to some extent limited his powers during the war. It was necessary to take certain steps to create such an army that would be supported by the state and would be ready at any time to begin military operations on the orders of military leaders. Due to the development of military affairs in that period, such an army could be infantry, armed with firearms, with artillery attached to it, under the leadership of commanders directly subordinate to government structures. It was necessary to create a standing army with command personnel under the authority of the supreme authority.

The most important document that laid the foundations of a standing army in the Russian state was the sentence issued by Ivan IV on October 1, 1550 “On the placement of a selected thousand service people in Moscow and surrounding districts.” There were 1078 such service people from the provincial nobles. They obeyed only the supreme authority in the person of the tsar and did not depend on the capital's aristocracy and large feudal lords - appanage princes. By decree of the same 1550, 6 rifle regiments of 500 people each were created. They were staffed by recruiting the free townspeople and free willing people - free Cossacks, black-sown state peasants. Strict requirements were imposed on them: integrity, good health, it was desirable for the archers to have a family. The archers were at least 18 years old. They were ordered to serve for life. The Sagittarius were on state support. They received cash and grain salaries from the treasury. Streltsy, who served in foreign cities, were allocated plots of land - allotments. In Moscow and other cities, they lived with their families in special settlements, had a yard and a personal plot. Streltsy were allowed to engage in resols and trade.

Organizationally, the Streltsy army was divided into orders (regiments) of 500 people each, orders - into hundreds, fifty and tens. Each regiment had 6-8 guns. The orders of the structures that determined the foreign and internal policy of the state were controlled by the Streltsy head. The order was required to have a special “moving hut”, where disciplinary violations were reviewed and orders were issued regulating the order of service. Unlike the noble cavalry, the archers had uniform weapons and clothing, and periodically passed military training. Having good combat training, armed with firearms and bladed weapons, they represented the most trained part of the army of the Russian state. TO end of XVI V. the number of streltsy infantry reached 18-20 thousand soldiers. Thus, as a result of the reform and further military construction, a permanent, well-organized and combat-ready Streltsy army was created, which gradually replaced the temporarily convened pishchalnik militias, and the first step was taken towards organizing a regular army in Russia.

The reforms also affected the Cossack freemen, who lived in cities on the southern outskirts of the state. Based on the principle of organizing the Streltsy infantry, a new formation in the troops was developed - the city Cossacks. They were recruited, like the archers, from free, willing people. The city Cossacks made up the garrisons of mainly border towns and fortified points of the abatis, where they carried out border service. City Cossacks were divided into mounted and footed. Their total number reached 5-6 thousand people.

Under Ivan IV, the “attack” (artillery) was separated into an independent branch of the military and its organization was streamlined. Artillerymen - gunners and fighters serving the fortress artillery - constituted a special group of military men. The government encouraged service in the ranks of gunners and fighters with the necessary knowledge and skill. They were provided with various privileges and benefits. Their service, like that of the archers, was lifelong and was inherited: the father passed on his knowledge to his son. The birth of field artillery took place. Guns appeared that were mounted on wheels and moved using horse traction, which increased the mobility of artillery and made it possible to use it in field battles.

Due to the widespread use of and. improvement of firearms by the Russian army, especially the Streltsy regiments, in the middle of the 16th century. change their battle formation, elements of new, linear tactics emerge. The battle formation began to stretch along the front and shrink in depth. The noble cavalry gradually acquired auxiliary importance. She carried out false attacks, luring the enemy into battle formations of fire infantry.

The Russian army still included a marching army. During the reign of Ivan IV, people assigned to the “staff” were required to appear at the assembly points upon registration. There, the governors distributed them among regiments depending on need: some to the convoy, others to the squad. In total, 80-90 thousand walking people took part in the campaigns.

During the reforms, with the help of the “staff”, Ivan IV improved the supply of Russian troops. Provisions were delivered by convoys or river ships to destinations (for example, Murom __ Sviyazhsk - Kazan), where supplies were created. Many border cities (Pskov, Smolensk, Astrakhan, etc.) had food supplies for 2-3 years in case of a siege. This is how the troop supply system was born, which later became known as the store supply system.

During the reforms, a clearer system of military command and control emerged than before. The general leadership of the troops and all affairs was carried out by the king. Direct control of the construction and preparation of troops was concentrated in orders. Military affairs were handled by the Discharge Order. He kept records and controlled the production of artillery in the Cannon Yard, bladed weapons, firearms, and defensive armor in the Armory and Bronny orders. With the formation of the Streltsy army, and with it the Streletsky hut (order), and then the Pushkarsky order, the Discharge order became supreme body military management in the state apparatus.

One of the central places in strengthening the state's defense capability was occupied by the reorganization of the border service. The constant military threat from the aggressive Crimean Khanate and nomadic peoples on the southeastern outskirts of the Russian state required an urgent improvement in border defense. By the middle of the 16th century. along the entire southeastern border a fortified chain of strongholds was formed: fortified cities, forts and fortifications, which formed the basis of the abatis. They housed city troops, consisting of archers, gunners and city Cossacks. To timely repel the predatory raids of nomads and Crimean Tatars, guard and village detachments were organized. In 1571, boyar M.I. Vorotynsky compiled the “Boyar verdict on stanitsa and guard service” - the first Russian military charter.

During the military construction under Ivan IV, the largest army in Europe was created, intended to protect the vast borders and solve foreign policy problems. The troops numbered over 250 thousand people, which was approximately 3% of the total population.

Tsar Ivan IV and his entourage set themselves the most important tasks of strengthening the centralized Russian state and establishing its international significance. To implement ambitious geopolitical plans, an effective tool was needed. The global state reforms of Ivan IV the Terrible, the emergence of new types of weapons, constant military threats from the south, west and east, and the difficult economic situation determined the uniqueness of the reforms of the armed forces that covered the period from 1550 to 1571.

Creation of regular military units

To organize personal security, in 1550 the king created a formation of archers numbering three thousand people. The Streltsy Corps was composed of common people and “free willing” people. All soldiers were armed with firearms. There were no analogues to this professional army of shooters anywhere in Europe. The Streletsky army consisted of six articles, 500 people in each. Three orders-divisions performed different functions:

the stirrups guarded the court and formed His Majesty’s personal escort;
those from Moscow served in the capital’s “izba” (orders);
policemen served in garrisons on the southern and western borders.

For each order, a uniform uniform and banner were required. The first mention of the participation of the Streltsy army in hostilities was in the Kazan campaign of 1552. At the end of the reign of Ivan the Terrible, the number of regular troops reached 20 thousand people.

"The Chosen Thousand"

The Tsar rightly assumed that strengthening the autocracy was possible only with the help of a new class. The reforms of Ivan IV the Terrible needed a serious lobby in the person of Moscow landowners. From small feudal lords, courtyard people living in the capital and its environs, the king forms a special military unit. The sons of landowners, nobles and boyars received state land plots from him, and for this they were obliged to bear military service.

According to the first order, the “thousands” showed up for military service. In peacetime, the maintenance of the army was carried out from the landowners' own funds, and in wartime - at the expense of the treasury. The creation of the “chosen thousand” had great political significance:

small landowners-nobles and boyar children were equal in official status with the descendants of the noble nobility;
the government’s connection with the local nobles, who formed the basis of the militia, strengthened;
Personnel were created to form in the future a whole class of “service people on the Moscow list.”

A total of 1,070 nobles entered the service.

Limitation of localism

The monopoly of the princely-boyar nobility on leadership positions in the army and government had a corrupting effect on the military people. This was clearly demonstrated during the first campaign against Kazan, during which the tsar had to convince the princes to act under a single command.

The Tsar intended to abolish localism altogether. Effective leadership of troops should be carried out by a talented commander, and not be an inherited duty. But for its time this was too bold an idea.

The military reform of Ivan the Terrible determined the strict subordination of regimental commanders, simplified the leadership of a combat formation and eliminated class disputes in combat conditions. Despite the obvious advantages of the regulations of 1550, this innovation was poorly received by the offspring of well-born nobles. Localism did not immediately give up its position, and the government periodically had to confirm the legitimacy of this resolution.

Regulations on military service

In 1555-1556, the military reform of Ivan the Terrible entered the next stage. The new “Code of Service” introduced compulsory military service for children of feudal lords from the age of 15. Young men up to this age were called minors, and those who re-entered the service were called novices. Military service was inherited and was for life.

Rules for mobilization were established. For every 50 acres of land, the feudal lord had to field one fully equipped mounted warrior. Owners of particularly large estates were obliged to bring armed slaves with them.

The Code determined the order of subordination of military leaders. The first codes were drawn up that determined the regulations for the performance of service. Reviews and gatherings were held periodically. A nobleman who did not show up for the review was severely punished. These measures made it possible, in conditions of continuous wars, to have a combat-ready and equipped army.

Central command and control system

The economic weakness of the state, the lack of infrastructure and the extent of the territories led to the creation of a rigid system of command and control of the army. The following structures-orders were created to control the troops:

Discharge - in wartime, carried out mobilization and actually performed the functions of the General Staff.
Streletsky.
Pushkarsky;.
Order of the Great Parish.
Order for cash distribution.

The orders were headed by trusted commanders. The results of Ivan the Terrible's reforms significantly affected the overall combat readiness of the Moscow army. Having created a centralized command and control apparatus, Russia was far ahead of Europe in this regard.

Development of artillery

The military reform of Ivan the Terrible affected the “Gunshot outfit”, which existed since 1506. State needs required a large number of new types of guns and ammunition. At the beginning of the Livonian War, the Russian army managed to capture a colossal arsenal. Realizing the shortage of foundry specialists, the Russian Tsar turned to Charles V and Queen Elizabeth with a request to send experienced craftsmen to Russia. The embargo, carried out at the instigation of the Livonians and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth against Muscovy, did not allow Ivan Vasilyevich’s plans to be fully realized.

However, on English and Danish ships, samples of new weapons and specialists still made it to Russia. Recruitment and attraction of captured firearms masters was also carried out. During this period, German masters began to play a leading role. Kasper Ganus, the teacher of Andrei Chokhov, is more famous than others.

Military production grew steadily. The cannon yard cast 5-6 large-caliber guns per year. In the 1560s, the foundation was laid for the production of similar types of guns and ammunition for them. Subordination appears in artillery crews.

In 1570, the “Cannon Order” was created. For maximum efficiency in combat use and standardization in production, artillery is classified. The main types of guns were:

bombards (“guns”);
mortars (“mounted guns”);
squeaked.

It was during this era that the largest guns were created. The crowning achievement of Russian gunsmiths was the creation of the Tsar Cannon and the first breech-loading gun in history. An analysis of sources, including foreign ones, allows us to confidently assert that the military reform of Ivan the Terrible allowed Russia to create the most advanced and numerous artillery fleet in Europe. By the end of the century, there were more than 5 thousand guns.

Organization of guard service

The reforms of Ivan IV the Terrible regarding the protection of the external borders of the state could not help but affect. In 1571, the “Charter of the Guard and Village Service” was approved. The appearance of this document is an indicator of the high level of Russian military theoretical thought of that era. Developed by Prince M.I. Vorotynsky, the regulations of the border guard determined strict order keeping guard. The border guard duty lasted from April 1 to November 30. The charter ordered the governors of border cities to send specially trained people to perform patrol duty. For the first time at the state level, the Cossacks were involved in border protection.

Reforms of Ivan the Terrible and the completion of the orientalization of the Russian army

The pre-reform army was well prepared to fight the lightly armed irregular formations of the Tatars and Ottomans. However, formed on the basis of the militia principle, the armed forces turned out to be completely unable to withstand the Western European military system of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. This resulted in a series of military disasters. As a result, expansion in the western direction had to be abandoned.

Decades of military reforms have yielded positive results. In Russia, elements of a regular army and an effective command apparatus began to emerge, and powerful rear structures were formed. We can briefly summarize what Ivan the Terrible’s military reforms achieved in one phrase - a combat-ready army was created to carry out active foreign policy activities.

Numerous transformations initiated by Ivan the Terrible affected all spheres of life of the Russian state. The beginning of the Kazan War turned out to be completely different from what the young ruler had hoped: the mistakes of the first campaigns showed the inconsistency of the Russian army, its limitations and inertia. Insufficient mobility, weak weapons, low numbers on a state scale - all this clearly demonstrated the need for new reforms, this time military.

The cost of maintaining the army is perhaps one of the most expensive items in government budgets, both in the present and in the past. And the transformations necessary for the army of the 16th century required a lot of money. Therefore, before starting to make changes to the military restructuring, Ivan IV carried out a large-scale tax reform.

The Church suffered the most from the tax changes. The young king took away many concessions and benefits from the monasteries. In particular, tolls on roads and bridges, which constituted their main source of income, were transferred to the treasury.

The land taxation system was also completely changed. Until 1551, in the Russian state, each region had its own taxes - the difference in the amounts collected was a consequence of state fragmentation in the past. Each principality had its own tax system, and after the unification of the lands, this discrepancy remained. And the most important thing in the financial reform of Ivan the Terrible was the unification of tax collections - a unified tax system was introduced throughout the state.

An increase in fees, the introduction of many additional taxes, increased monetary pressure on the peasantry - all this led to an increase in the flow of money into the treasury. However, according to the plan of Ivan the Terrible, the core of the new army of the Russian state should be the boyar children - the nobles. And for this social stratum, the reformed tax system provided numerous benefits. “Servant people” now pay significantly less from their lands than everyone else, including even monasteries.

First military reforms

The insufficient numbers and poor supply of the Russian army gave rise to changes in the recruiting system. According to the new code, for every hundred quarters of land, the landowner had to field one horseman - in full armor and with weapons. Both the landowner himself and a person nominated in his place could join the army. If desired, military service could be replaced by contributing a certain amount to the treasury.

In addition, all boyar children joining the army were entitled to a government salary. And those nobles who provided a larger number of “service people” than prescribed by the new law were paid double their salaries.

In addition to noble children, Ivan the Terrible also recruited Cossacks to serve in the army. Donetsk Cossacks became the basis of the country's border troops.

The Chosen Thousand

In continuation of the strengthening of the nobility, in 1550 a decree was signed - a “sentence” - on the displacement of thousands: several hundred boyar children were allocated land plots in the vicinity of Moscow. With this, Ivan IV solved several issues at once - the development of nearby lands, the attraction of “service people”, and the creation of “best servants” - a group of nobility loyal to the tsar, ready to support him in any endeavors.

The new landed nobility became the core of the army. At the same time, service could be passed on by inheritance, but it was the responsibility of the landowners to provide the boyar children who joined the troops with horses, weapons, armor and their own warriors.

Streletsky army

One of the most important military transformations of Ivan the Terrible was the creation of the Streltsy army. A special military unit, endowed with special privileges, received the name Streltsy because of the newest firearms they used - the squeak.

The bulk of the army was made up of townspeople and free peasants, who received not only a salary, but also their own small plots of land for joining the sovereign's service. In cities - primarily in Moscow - the archers were allocated their own territory, the so-called Streltsy yard. In peacetime, the Streltsy served as the guard of the palace, and were engaged in trade and craft. By a special decree, Streltsy households were exempt from taxes. And to regulate the work of this special army, a separate Streletsky order was created.

Thanks to such benefits and relaxations, the archers became the most privileged branch of the military in the Russian army. And further modernization led to the fact that the Streltsy army became the main support of the throne and the most powerful military unit.

conclusions

Thanks to the unification and revision of taxation, army expenses could be financed directly from the state treasury, and in full. Increasing the number of serving nobles ensured the loyalty of the troops to the king and made the army the true support of the throne. The change in the principle of recruiting ensured not only an increase in the number of troops, but also their fairly uniform armament. And the massive introduction of firearms and artillery significantly increased the combat effectiveness of the Russian army.

Creation of regular military units

the stirrups guarded the court and formed His Majesty’s personal escort;
those from Moscow served in the capital’s “izba” (orders);
policemen served in garrisons on the southern and western borders.

"The Chosen Thousand"

small landowners-nobles and boyar children were equal in official status with the descendants of the noble nobility;
the government’s connection with the local nobles, who formed the basis of the militia, strengthened;
Personnel were created to form in the future a whole class of “service people on the Moscow list.”

A total of 1,070 nobles entered the service.

Limitation of localism

Regulations on military service

Central command and control system

Discharge - in wartime, carried out mobilization and actually performed the functions of the General Staff.
Streletsky.
Pushkarsky;.
Order of the Great Parish.
Order for cash distribution.

Development of artillery

In 1570, the “Cannon Order” was created. For greatest efficiency in combat use and standardization in production, artillery is classified. The main types of guns were:

bombards (“guns”);
mortars (“mounted guns”);
squeaked.

Organization of guard service

The reforms of Ivan IV the Terrible regarding the protection of the external borders of the state could not help but affect. In 1571, the “Charter of the Guard and Village Service” was approved. The appearance of this document is an indicator of the high level of Russian military theoretical thought of that era. Developed by Prince M.I. Vorotynsky, the regulations of the border guard determined the strict order of guard duty. The border guard duty lasted from April 1 to November 30. The charter ordered the governors of border cities to send specially trained people to perform patrol duty. For the first time at the state level, the Cossacks were involved in border protection.

Reforms of Ivan the Terrible and the completion of the orientalization of the Russian army

Played an important role in strengthening the Russian centralized state Ivan IV Vasilievich (reigned 1533-1584). In January 1547, he accepted the title of king, which marked the transition to a new stage in the development of the state. At the beginning of the reign of Ivan IV, the Russian state extended from the White and Barents Seas in the north to the Ryazan fields in the south; from the shores of the Gulf of Finland and Smolensk in the west to the spurs of the Northern Urals in the east. The area of the country reached 2.8 million km 2, and the population was 5-6 million people. The population of the capital city of Moscow was about 100 thousand people. The capital was cultural and industrial center states. For the Moscow government in the sphere of foreign policy, the main task was brought to the fore: to provide access to the Baltic Sea. The economic growth of the strengthening state urgently required connections with the countries of Western Europe and the elimination of the threat from the Kazan Khanate, which with constant raids ravaged the Nizhny Novgorod, Murom and Ustyug outskirts of the state. In the middle of the 16th century. There were about 100 thousand Russian prisoners in the Khanate. Under these conditions, in order to successfully solve the problems facing the Russian state, a restructuring of public administration and the creation of a strong army on a different basis were required - there was a need to carry out civil and military reforms. And in the 50s. XVI century they were carried out.

The most important document that laid the foundations of a standing army in the Russian state and streamlined the military service of large feudal lords was the sentence issued by Ivan IV on October 1, 1550, “On the placement in Moscow and surrounding counties of a selected thousand service people.” Then, the “Code of Service” of 1556 finally formalized the local system as the main military force of the Russian state. All patrimonial owners were obliged to perform military service according to the standards established by the Code for landowners and became servicemen for life. In addition to the estate, service people received a cash salary, which was usually issued before the campaign. It created interest among the nobility in the service and attracted them to military service. a large number of feudal lords The noble cavalry was distinguished by its military training, quick actions and swift attacks on the battlefield. It fully met the requirements of the growing Russian state. However, the local cavalry, despite its large numbers, did not solve the main problem. It was necessary to create a standing army with command personnel under the authority of the supreme authority. According to the verdict of October 1, 1550, there were 1078 such service people “landowners” from the provincial nobles, “children of boyars and best servants”, whom the tsar allocated with estates around Moscow. This elite thousand (later the “Moscow ranks”) became the Tsar’s armed force and his guard. They obeyed only the supreme authority in the person of the tsar and did not depend on the capital's aristocracy and large feudal lords - appanage princes. By decree of the same 1550, 6 rifle regiments of 500 people each were created. They were staffed by recruiting the free townspeople and free willing people - free Cossacks, black-sown state peasants. Organizationally, the Streltsy army was divided into orders (regiments) of 500 people each, orders - into hundreds, fifty and tens. Each regiment had 6-8 guns. Unlike the noble cavalry, the archers had uniform weapons and clothing, and periodically underwent military training. Having good combat training, armed with firearms and bladed weapons, they represented the most trained part of the army of the Russian state. By the end of the 16th century. the number of streltsy infantry reached 18-20 thousand soldiers. Thus, as a result of the reform and further military construction, a permanent, well-organized and combat-ready Streltsy army was created, which gradually replaced the temporarily convened pishchalnik militias, and the first step was taken towards organizing a regular army in Russia. Due to the widespread use and improvement of firearms, the Russian army, especially the Streltsy regiments, in the middle of the 16th century. change their battle formation, elements of new, linear tactics emerge. The noble cavalry gradually acquired auxiliary importance. The Russian army still included a marching army. During the reforms, a clearer system of military command and control emerged than before. The general leadership of the troops and all affairs was carried out by the king. Direct control of the construction and preparation of troops was concentrated in orders. Military affairs were handled by the Rank Order, which became the highest body of military control in the state apparatus.

The results of the reform: the transition from a militia army to the creation of a standing army of noble cavalry, archers, city Cossacks and gunners; the introduction of a new, clearer system of military management, the highest body of which was the Rank Order.

Wars and military campaigns of the 2nd half of the 16th century. In 1547-1550 Tsar Ivan IV undertook campaigns against Kazan twice, but they did not achieve results. The third campaign in 1552 was distinguished by more thorough preparation and thoughtfulness of the strategic plan. The siege of the city, which lasted 38 days, ended successfully and on October 2, 1552, Kazan fell. The threat to the eastern outskirts of the state, which brought captivity and ruin to the Russian population, was eliminated. The liquidation of the Kazan Khanate, which relied on the support of the Ottoman Empire (Turkey) and the Crimean Khanate, had enormous political consequences for the Russian state. Following Kazan in 1556-1557. The Astrakhan Khanate and the Nogai Horde recognized vassal dependence on the Russian state, and Chuvashia, Bashkiria and Kabarda voluntarily became part of it. Trade routes to the markets of Transcaucasia and Central Asia opened. With the security of the southeastern borders secured, it became possible to break the blockade in the west, where the Livonian Order was stubbornly pushing Russia away from the countries of Western Europe, from access to the Baltic Sea. In January 1558, the Livonian War began, which lasted 25 years. The troops of the Livonian Order could not resist for long, and in 1560 Livonia fell apart. In 1569, Poland and Lithuania formed a single state - the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth - and opposed Russia. The war became protracted. Russia failed to defeat the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and Sweden. The Livonian War ended with the conclusion of the Truce of Plus between Russia and Sweden in 1583. Russia did not achieve victory and did not reach the Baltic Sea, but its opponents abandoned their claims to Pskov, Novgorod and Smolensk. While Russia led Livonian War, the Krymchaks continued to threaten her from the south. In the early 70s. XVI century The invasion of the Crimean Khanate troops to Moscow was repelled. The Crimean Khan Devlet-Girey in 1571 raided Moscow and burned its settlement. In the summer of 1572, Devlet-Girey made a second campaign, with the goal of capturing Moscow and seizing Kazan and Astrakhan. In fierce battles on August 1 and 2, the Russian army defeated the hordes of Devlet-Girey. Only 20 thousand Tatars returned to Crimea. Moscow was saved from ruin. The Crimean Tatars' raids on Russian lands almost stopped.

Overcoming the Troubles and Strengthening the Russian State in the 17th Century The beginning of the century (1601) for Russia and its army was fraught with difficult trials. Time of Troubles - the period of struggle of boyar clans for power in the country, Polish intervention (1604-1612), peasant revolt under the leadership of I.I. Bolotnikov (1606-1607), Swedish intervention (1610-1617) - ruined the country and significantly weakened its military potential. After the death of Tsar Ivan IV in 1584, and then Tsar Fyodor Ivanovich in 1598, the Rurik dynasty came to an end. Meanwhile, in the struggle for the throne, the boyar Boris Godunov, close to Ivan IV, and his followers defeated the boyar family of the Romanovs, relatives of Ivan the Terrible. Tsar Boris took the throne not at the best time for the country (02/17/1598 by decision of the Zemsky Sobor). Bad harvests 1601 - 1603 led to famine. Feudal oppression (cancellation of the peasants' exit on St. George's Day) intensified. Peasant unrest took place on the southern outskirts of the state, which later resulted in Peasant War early XVII V. On April 13, 1605, Tsar Boris Godunov died suddenly. Tsarist army did not swear allegiance to his 16-year-old son Fedor. The boyars went over to the side of False Dmitry I and the army of the impostor moved towards Moscow. Unrest in the capital of the Russian state led to the fall of the Godunov government. Tsar Fedor was killed and on June 20, 1605, False Dmitry I entered Moscow. His reign lasted less than a year; on May 17, 1606, at dawn, to the sound of the alarm bell, the Moscow people opposed the foreigners. The Muscovites, led by the Shuisky boyars, killed more than a thousand Poles and broke into the Kremlin. False Dmitry, fleeing from his pursuers, jumped out of the window of the Kremlin tower, but was overtaken and killed. Vasily Shuisky was proclaimed tsar. From the end of 1608, a partisan movement arose in the country. A number of cities rebelled and did not recognize the power of the Polish protege and the “seven boyars” - the government of seven Russian boyars who formed the “Duma” under him. The cities of Yaroslavl, Kostroma, Kolomna and others were freed from the invaders.
February 28, 1609 V.I. Shuisky signed the Vyborg Treaty with Sweden on a defensive alliance against Poland, for which he ceded the city of Korela and Korela district to the Swedes. In response, the Polish king Sigismund III undertook open intervention. In the fall of 1609, he moved a 12,000-strong army to Smolensk. In 1610, traitorous boyars (“seven boyars”) overthrew Tsar Vasily Shuisky and treacherously allowed the Polish army and German mercenaries into the capital on the night of September 21. However, the Russian people did not bow their heads to the invaders and resolutely rose up to fight them. IN Nizhny Novgorod Zemstvo elder, merchant Kuzma Minin led a 5,000-strong militia. Prince Dmitry Mikhailovich Pozharsky was elected head of the militia. Vologda, Kazan, Yaroslavl and other cities joined the Nizhny Novgorod residents. In July 1612, the militia set out from Yaroslavl and on August 20 approached Moscow. The Poles were surrounded on all sides, starved, and capitulated on October 26, 1612. Moscow was liberated from the Polish invaders. IN Russian Federation the date of the liberation of Moscow (November 4 according to New Style) is celebrated as National Unity Day.

With the end of the Time of Troubles, boyar Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov was elected to the Russian throne in 1613. But the situation in the country remained difficult. In addition to restoring order in the state, it was necessary to finally repel external threats. In 1617, a peace treaty was concluded in Stolbov between Sweden and Russia. Under this agreement, Russia ceded Russian lands to Sweden from Narva to Korela, that is, the entire coast of the Baltic Sea, Sweden in return liberated the captured Russian cities of Novgorod, Staraya Russa, Ladoga, Porkhov and Gdov. As a result, Russia was pushed away from the shores of the Baltic Sea for a long time. In October 1618, the Poles and the detachments of Zaporozhye Cossacks who joined them approached Moscow, but the attack was repelled. In December 1618 The Deulin Truce was concluded for a period of 14.5 years. According to this agreement, the Polish government refused to seek the Moscow throne by force of arms, and the Russians temporarily ceded Smolensk and several Seversky (on the Seversky Donets River) cities to Poland. Since 1648, the war of the Ukrainian and Belarusian peoples began against Polish oppression and for reunification with Russia. In January 1654, the Rada was convened in the city of Pereyaslav to popularly proclaim the reunification of Ukraine with Russia. In the last quarter of the 17th century. The Russian state had to repel the invasion of Turkish troops in the south (June 1678)

Military reforms of the 17th century began from 1621 (with the adoption of the “Charter of Military, Cannon and Other Matters Relating to Military Science”) until the 70s of the 17th century. Results of the reform: regiments (troops) of the “new system” were created - a permanent armed force, consisting of dragoons (horse and foot), reitar (cavalry), soldiers (foot troops) regiments (by 1680, regiments of the new system accounted for up to 67% of the total army, in there were up to 90 thousand people); the regiments of the “new system” were given artillery and the Pushkar regiment was formed; the army of the “new system” received a single organization (regiment - company); new bodies of higher military control were formed: the Foreign Order, the Order for the collection of military people, the Order for the collection of military people, etc.; in 1649 it was adopted Cathedral Code, which was the prototype of the disciplinary regulations of the Russian army. To participate in minor military operations, the army was formed from three regiments. IN major operations it consisted of five regiments: the “large regiment”, the “advanced regiment”, the “right-hand regiment”, the “left-hand regiment” and the “guard regiment”. Depending on the scale of the campaign, the number of regiments varied from several hundred to several thousand soldiers. However, after the campaign, the rank and file and some of the officers went home, their weapons were surrendered, i.e. these were not yet regular troops in the full sense of the word.

The role of the Ministry of Defense in the Moscow State was played by the Rank Order, which was in charge of appointment to positions, the formation of field operating armies and fortress garrisons, as well as the provision of land to servicemen.

7.4. Military reorganization of Russia in the 18th-19th centuries

Military reorganization of Russia in XVIII-XIX centuries began with the government and military reforms of the king Peter I (reigned 1689-1725). At that time Russia was a large feudal state. More than 13 million people lived on its territory. The economic basis of the state was feudal-serf land ownership, manufacturing and small craft production. In terms of economic indicators, cultural development, and military organization, it lagged significantly behind Western countries. One of the reasons for this situation was the long-term isolation of the state, its isolation from the Baltic and Black Seas. In the XVI-XVII centuries. the predecessors of Peter I repeatedly tried to get through to them, but these attempts were unsuccessful. Real prerequisites for solving this urgent problem appeared only at the end of the 17th century. and are associated with the name of Peter I. Under his leadership, a powerful economic base was created in Russia, financial, monetary, administrative and judicial reforms were carried out aimed at maximum centralization of state administration and strict regulation of all aspects of social life. The most important integral part Peter's reforms included a complete restructuring of the military organization of the state, and above all, the creation of a regular army and navy based on a recruiting system. In Russian historiography, there is an established opinion that the formation of a regular army began with the decrees of 1699, which provided for the recruitment of “free people” and the recruitment of “dachas” as soldiers. The war with Sweden that began in 1700 caused an acute shortage of people in the army, which could no longer be covered by “free” and “dacha” people. In 1705, the next step was taken - by decree of Peter I, a unified system of recruiting troops was introduced - conscription, according to which the army's soldiers were formed from peasants and other tax-paying classes, and the officer corps - from nobles. Recruitment sets were made from a number of peasant souls determined in each specific case. Thus, a stable system of manning the armed forces was created, which was the most advanced for that time. It existed virtually unchanged for almost 170 years (until the introduction of universal military service in Russia in 1874). Much attention was paid to the creation of an officer corps. At the beginning of the 18th century. A system for staffing the army with officers was developed. It was formed primarily from nobles, who, before receiving officer rank, were required to learn the basics of military service as privates and non-commissioned officers in guard regiments. However, all this could not fully provide the Russian army with well-trained officers. Peter I paid special attention to the creation of military schools. Behind a short time nautical, artillery, engineering and other forces were created educational establishments, in which they began to train officers. This marked the beginning of the formation of military educational institutions in Russia.

New system recruitment of the armed forces turned out to be very rational. Having established personal military service for the nobility, Peter I gave the conscription service of other classes a communal character. Each community was obliged to supply one recruit from a certain number of households. The recruitment system was territorial in nature and preserved the national character of the Russian army, and recruitment into regiments from certain territories created a good basis for military camaraderie and increased the moral and combat qualities of soldiers. The main tactical unit with permanent staff was the regiment. The infantry was initially armed with a gun (fusel, hence the fusilier companies). At the same time as the infantry, the organizational structure of the cavalry was improved. Peter I followed the path of creating dragoon-type cavalry, which could operate both on horseback and on foot. Artillery underwent significant changes during the reforms. Peter I attached extremely great importance to this type of weapon. Artillery under Peter I began to be divided into regimental, field, siege and fortress, which provided ample opportunities for its tactical use. There were three types of guns: cannons, howitzers and mortars. During Peter's reforms, horse artillery appeared in the Russian army.

Military reforms significantly influenced the design and armament of fortifications. Fortresses such as Peter and Paul, Shlisselburg, Pskov, Narva, Ivangorod, and Kronstadt were powerful defensive structures. They had large military reserves, were well armed and could, in case of threat, set up strong garrisons.

Navy. Creating a fleet for Peter I was the primary task. The official decree on the beginning of the creation of the fleet was the verdict of the Boyar Duma on October 20, 1696: “There will be sea vessels.” To implement this decision, there were already about 10 shipyards in Russia. At the beginning of the 18th century. 14 more were built. All these works were supervised by the Ship Order, created in 1696 in Moscow, later renamed the Order of Admiralty Affairs, headed by F.M. Apraksin. The actual organizer and creator of the domestic navy was Peter I himself. During the years of the reign of Peter I, the domestic fleet turned into a formidable force - 111 battleships, 38 frigates, 60 brigantines, 8 ships, 67 large galleys, a significant number of scampaways (half-galleys) were built. , bombardment ships, fire ships and others sea vessels. The Russian regular navy played an extremely important role in the final establishment of Russia in the Baltic and then in the Black Sea. The brilliant victories of Peter I went down in history and are celebrated in the Russian Federation as days of military glory of Russia - Victory Day of the Russian army under the command of Peter the Great over the Swedes in Battle of Poltava(1709) and First Day Russian history naval victory of the Russian fleet under the command of Peter the Great over the Swedes at Cape Gangut (1714).

Peter I developed a detailed and profound system for controlling the armed forces. The recruitment, organization and other issues of the army and navy were in charge of central institutions - the Razryadny, Admiralty, Armory, Artillery and other orders. In 1718-1719 instead of a number of military orders, the Military Collegium was created, the Admiralty Prikaz was transformed into the Admiralty Collegium (Admiralty Collegium), which contributed to a qualitative improvement in military administration. During the war, control of the active troops was carried out by the commander-in-chief and the “field army headquarters” located with him. The Charter of 1716 legislated the organization of field administration of the Russian army.

Under Peter I, the art of war was further developed. The main goal of military operations was not to capture the enemy’s fortresses, as it had been before, but to defeat his troops in a field battle or battle. Accordingly, the system of preparing military units for combat operations, their training and education also changed. The previous reviews once a year and rare shooting practice are being replaced by constant training, which turned the recruit into a skilled soldier and was focused on a combination of individual and group training with bringing to automaticity various types of reorganizations of a company, battalion, regiment, which ensured the mobility and efficiency of their maneuvering on the battlefield. At the same time, the most serious attention was paid to coordinated and accurate firing from rifles, skillfully combining it with bayonet strikes, and precise control of the battle on the part of the officers, which was not only based on the requirement of unquestioning diligence, but also presupposed the necessary independence of subordinates.
Transformations in the training and education system began with the development of new military regulations and instructions, the development of which was based on combat practice in the conditions of the Northern War.

Results of the reform: the Russian regular army and navy were created, recruited on the basis of conscription (forced) recruitment, with a lifelong term of military service; the army and navy began to be supported by the state treasury; the previously existing army of the “new order” was disbanded; a new unified centralized system of military command, uniform organization and weapons in the infantry, cavalry and artillery, and a unified system of military training and education, regulated by regulations, were introduced; military schools were opened to train officers; military-judicial reform was carried out. As a result of the military reforms of Peter I, a combat-ready national army was created in Russia, the largest of the armies of European states.

After the death of Peter I in 1725, the young empire entered a difficult period of its development. Things began to decline in the military and naval departments. However, the progressive direction in improving the armed forces and developing the art of war, which received a brilliant start in the wars of Peter the Great, was preserved. During this period, Russia took part in the War of the Polish Succession of 1733-1735, and also waged a war with Turkey in 1736-1739, which was preceded by the Crimean Campaign of 1735. Russian-Turkish War of 1736-1739. was conducted by Russia with the goal of capturing the Black Sea region and providing access to the Azov and Black Seas. the main objective war - access to the Black Sea - was not achieved. In July 1741, Sweden, dissatisfied with the terms of the Nystadt Peace, at the instigation of France, decided to take revenge for the defeat in Northern War and declared war on Russia, which took place with a significant superiority of Russian troops and ended with the conclusion of the Abo Peace Treaty on August 7, 1743, according to which Sweden not only recognized the conditions of the Nystadt Peace of 1721, but also ceded part of Eastern Finland to Russia.

2nd half of the 18th century. was more saturated with dynamic military actions. Russia has been actively foreign policy. And its participation in resolving international issues often turned out to be decisive. The most significant event during this period was the Seven Years' War (1756-1763), which involved two coalitions of European states. One included Prussia and Great Britain, the other included France, Austria, Sweden, and Saxony. Russia also took the side of the latter. In September 1760, the Russian army entered Berlin. Prussia found itself on the brink of disaster. Frederick II was ready to make peace on any terms. But in December 1761, Empress Elizaveta Petrovna died. Peter III (an admirer of Frederick II), who ascended the Russian throne, concluded a peace treaty with Prussia on April 24, 1762, according to which the latter returned all the territory conquered by the Russian army. The Seven Years' War was ingloriously ended. However, it became a good school of combat experience and had a great influence on the development of military art and the formation of the leadership qualities of Russian generals. Russian troops began to use new tactics of columns and loose formation, maneuvering by individual parts of the battle formation, using artillery fire over the heads of their troops, and light infantry adapted to operate in loose formation (jaegers). The Russian army showed its undoubted superiority over the mercenary Prussian army and emerged from the war stronger and stronger than it was before. The Russian soldier demonstrated his excellent fighting qualities: courage, bravery, perseverance and ingenuity. At the same time, the experience of this war clearly showed that the military system that existed in Russia suffered from many shortcomings. In order to eliminate them, by decree of the new empress, Catherine II (ruled 1761 - 1796), a special Military Commission was created in July 1762, chaired by Field Marshal P.S. Saltykova. The results of the Commission’s work had a positive impact on the further development of the country’s armed forces. After the Seven Years' War, the main attention of the Russian government was focused on the southern strategic direction. National interests Russia demanded access to the Black Sea, free navigation through it and the Black Sea straits. Türkiye did its best to prevent this. At the end of 1768 she declared war on Russia. In the Chesma naval battle in June 1770, the Russian squadron defeated the enemy, which outnumbered it by 2 times in number of ships. The Kyuchuk-Kainardzhi peace treaty, signed on July 10, 1774, was concluded in conditions of Russia’s military superiority over
Turkey. Russian-Turkish relations became even more strained after the final annexation of Crimea to Russia at the end of 1783, and just over three years later, in August 1787, Turkey again declared war on Russia. Under the leadership of Chief General A.V. Suvorov, the Turks were defeated near Focsani and on the Rymnik River. Ishmael was taken by storm. In the Russian Federation, this victory is immortalized as the day of military glory of Russia - the Day of the capture of the Turkish fortress of Izmail by Russian troops under the command of A.V. Suvorov (1790). The victories of the Russian troops on land were complemented by the victories of the Black Sea Fleet, led by the outstanding Russian naval commander Rear Admiral F.F. Ushakov. On August 29, 1790, a naval battle took place near the island of Tendra between the Russian Black Sea Fleet (37 ships, frigates and other vessels) under the command of Ushakov and the Turkish fleet (45 ships, frigates and other vessels). As a result of this battle, the dominant position of the Russian fleet in the northeastern part of the Black Sea was ensured. In the Russian Federation, the date of this brilliant victory is immortalized as the day of military glory of Russia - Victory Day of the Russian squadron under the command of F.F. Ushakov over the Turkish squadron at Cape Tendra (1790).

During the reign of Paul I (1796-1801) Russia, as part of a coalition, fought against France. The first step of the anti-French coalition was the unification of the fleets of Russia and Turkey in order, together with the British fleet, to counteract the French army. At the beginning of April 1799, Suvorov arrived in Verona, where he took command of the allied army, which began offensive military operations against the French army in Northern Italy. In April, Suvorov's victory on the Adda River opened the way for him to Milan and Turin and forced the French to withdraw their troops. On June 6-8, a counter battle took place on the Trebbia River. The defeat of the French troops ended with an organized pursuit. In August, the Battle of Novi took place, which Suvorov called “the most stubborn and bloody.” Russian-Austrian troops achieved complete victory over the French. The brilliant victories won under the leadership of Suvorov in Italy aroused serious concerns among the participants in the anti-French coalition. Great Britain did not want to see Russian troops on the Mediterranean coast. Austria was interested in the speedy withdrawal of Russian troops in order to be in sole control of Italian soil. The result of all this was the decision to move Russian troops from Italy to Switzerland - supposedly to join the Austrian army, which put Suvorov's army in an extremely difficult situation. The Swiss campaign is the final stage of military activity and the highest achievement of A.V.’s art of military leadership. Suvorov. The famous crossing of the Gotthard Pass, the capture of the Devil's Bridge, the battles of Schwyz and others fighting, including breaking out of encirclement, made a significant contribution to the tactics of mountain warfare. One of the most important features of the Russian commander’s activities during this period was the desire to constantly maintain the morale of the troops. He had unlimited faith in the moral strength of the Russian soldier. After a two-week march with difficulties and hardships, overcoming chasms and mountain paths, and resistance from enemy troops, Suvorov led his army to Austria. For his feat, he was awarded the title of Generalissimo and received the title of Prince of Italy.
The exploits of our soldiers and sailors immortalized the name of the Russian warrior in Europe. The Italian and Swiss campaigns of Field Marshal Suvorov and the Mediterranean expedition of Admiral Ushakov became one of the most brilliant pages of Russian military history.

Russian wars in the 19th century. The main military-political events at the beginning of the 19th century. took place over vast areas of Europe, and their main participants were Napoleonic France and the Russian Empire. The situation in Europe was extremely tense. France, under the leadership of the talented military and statesman Napoleon Bonaparte, strove for world domination. Attempts by European countries to resist it ended unsuccessfully. Russian empire entered the 19th century. in the prime of glory and power. Accustomed since Catherine’s times to actively interfering in European affairs, the Russian government could not stand indifferently to the aggressive actions of Napoleon, who was redrawing the map of Europe. All this inevitably led to Russia's participation in European wars, which were fought to counteract the hegemony of France. Russia was part of the 2nd, 3rd and 4th anti-French coalitions. Having participated in the Russian-Austro-French War of 1805 and the Russian-Prussian-French War of 1806-1807, Russia did not achieve success. The campaigns ended with the defeat of the Russian-Austrian army in the battle of Austerlitz on November 20, 1805. In 1806, Napoleon defeated the Prussian-Saxon army near Jena and Auerstedt and occupied Berlin. Alexander I, having failed in providing military assistance to Austria and Prussia, was forced on June 25, 1807 in Tilsit (on the Neman River) to sign a Russian-French treaty of peace, friendship and alliance. Russia recognized all of Napoleon's conquests and his imperial title, entered into an alliance with France, and pledged to break diplomatic relations with Great Britain and join the continental blockade.

By the time peace was signed with Napoleon, Russia was waging wars with Iran and Turkey to protect its possessions in Transcaucasia.
In 1801, Eastern Georgia (Kartli-Kakheti Kingdom) voluntarily joined Russia, and the Mingrelian Principality (1803), the Imereti Kingdom and the Gurian Principality (1804) came under its protection. In June 1804, Iranian troops invaded Transcaucasia, but were stopped, and then defeated at Echmiadzin on June 19-20, 1804. In 1805, the Karabakh, Shirvan and Sheki khanates voluntarily transferred to Russian citizenship. IN next year The Derbent and Baku khanates were occupied. According to the Treaty of Gulistan, signed on October 12, 1813, Dagestan, Northern Azerbaijan and Georgia were annexed to Russia. Türkiye also dreamed of revenge for previous defeats. In December 1806, the Turkish Sultan, pushed by Napoleon, declared war on Russia in the hope of regaining Crimea and Georgia. Russian troops occupied Moldavia and Wallachia, and in 1807 repelled the Turkish offensive on the Danube and the Caucasus. Russian squadron of Vice Admiral D.N. Senyavina, who came from the Baltic Sea, won victories over the Turkish fleet in the Dardanelles and Athos battles. Russia provided military assistance Serbs who rebelled against Turkish rule. In the spring of 1809, hostilities resumed. In the Caucasus, Russian troops took Poti (1809), Anapa and Sukhum-Kale (1810), the Akhalkalaki fortress (1811), and occupied Dobruja (1809) at the Danube Theater and a number of fortresses in Eastern Bulgaria (1810). The point was set by the new commander of the Danube Army, Infantry General M.I. Kutuzov's victories in the battle of Rushchuk on June 22 and at Slobodzeya on November 23, 1811. The Bucharest Peace Treaty of 1812 secured the annexation of Bessarabia and Western Georgia to Russia. There was also unrest on the northwestern borders of Russia. Alexander I sought to establish complete control over the northern part of the Baltic Sea and ensure the security of the Russian capital. On February 9, 1808, the Russian army under the command of Infantry General F.F. Buxhoevedena crossed the Finnish border, and by the end of the year Finland was conquered. In March 1809, Russian troops, having crossed the Gulf of Bothnia across the ice, transferred military operations to Swedish territory. Under the influence of a series of defeats, a coup d'etat took place in Stockholm. Having exhausted its strength, Sweden, according to the Treaty of Friedrichsham on September 5, 1809, ceded Finland and the Åland Islands to Russia. Russia is firmly entrenched in the Baltic Sea. Thus, having failed to stop Napoleon on the fields of Europe, Russia nevertheless strengthened its northern and southern borders and deprived France of potential allies in the coming war in the person of Sweden and Turkey.