The first militia in times of troubles was the city. The first people's militia of the Time of Troubles

The government of the seven boyars, who became Polish puppets, did not even think about repelling the enemy. The people rose up to fight for liberation. In Ryazan, under the leadership of the nobleman Lyapunov, the first militia was formed from nobles, townspeople and Cossacks. In the spring of 1611 It approached Moscow and began the siege. However, in the summer, a struggle broke out between the noble militia and the Cossack peasant part, which ended with the murder of Lyapunov and the collapse of the first militia. The situation in the country also worsened due to the fall of Smolensk. Taking advantage of Russia's weakness, the Swedes occupied Novgorod. This news caused a new wave of the liberation movement. Nizhny Novgorod became the center for the formation of the second militia. It was organized and inspired by the zemstvo elder Kuzma Minin, and headed by Dmitry Pozharsky. By the end of 1612 Moscow was liberated and the interventionists were defeated. The Time of Troubles ended with large territorial losses for Rus'. Smolensk was occupied by the Poles, and Novgorod by the Swedes. According to the Stolbovo Peace Treaty of 1617. Sweden returned Novgorod, but retained Izhora with the banks of the Neva and the Gulf of Finland. Russia was deprived of access to the Baltic Sea. In 1618 The Deulin truce was concluded, the Smolensk land passed to Poland. The economic devastation lasted for a long time. However, the historical significance of the fight against the invaders lies in the fact that the Russian people defended the independence of Russia.

19. The beginning of the reign of the Romanovs. End of the Troubles.

In the specific historical conditions of the beginning of the 17th century. the priority was the restoration of central power, which meant the election of a new king. A Zemsky Sobor met in Moscow, at which, in addition to the Boyar Duma, the highest clergy and the capital's nobility, numerous provincial nobility, townspeople, Cossacks and even black-sown (state) peasants were represented. 50 Russian cities sent their representatives. The main question was the election of a king. A fierce struggle broke out around the candidacy of the future tsar at the council. Some boyar groups proposed calling a “prince’s son” from Poland or Sweden, others nominated candidates from the old Russian princely families (Golitsyns, Mstislavskys, Trubetskoys, Romanovs). The Cossacks even offered the son of False Dmitry II and Marina Mnishek (“warren”). After much debate, the members of the cathedral agreed on the candidacy of 16-year-old Mikhail Romanov, the cousin of the last tsar from the Moscow Rurik dynasty, Fyodor Ivanovich, which gave reason to associate him with the “legitimate” dynasty. The nobles saw the Romanovs as consistent opponents of the “boyar tsar” Vasily Shuisky, while the Cossacks saw them as supporters of “Tsar Dmitry”. The boyars, who hoped to retain power and influence under the young tsar, did not object either. On February 21, 1613, the Zemsky Sobor announced the election of Mikhail Romanov as Tsar. An embassy was sent to the Kostroma Ipatiev Monastery, where Mikhail and his mother “nun Martha” were hiding at that time with a proposal to take the Russian throne. This is how the Romanov dynasty established itself in Russia, ruling the country for more than 300 years. One of the heroic episodes of Russian history dates back to this time. A Polish detachment tried to capture the newly elected tsar, looking for him in the Kostroma estates of the Romanovs. But the headman of the village of Domnina, Ivan Susanin, not only warned the tsar about the danger, but also led the Poles into impenetrable forests. The hero died from Polish sabers, but also killed the nobles lost in the forests. In the first years of the reign of Mikhail Romanov, the country was actually ruled by the Saltykov boyars, relatives of the “nun Martha,” and from 1619, after the return of the Tsar’s father, Patriarch Filaret Romanov, from captivity, the patriarch and “great sovereign” Filaret. The Troubles shook the royal power, which inevitably increased the importance of the Boyar Duma. Mikhail could not do anything without boyar council. The local system, which regulated relationships within the ruling boyars, existed in Russia for more than a century and was exceptionally strong. The highest positions in the state were occupied by persons whose ancestors were distinguished by nobility, were related to the Kalita dynasty and achieved the greatest success in their careers. The transfer of the throne to the Romanovs destroyed the old system. Kinship with the new dynasty began to take on paramount importance. But new system Localism did not take hold immediately. In the first decades of the Troubles, Tsar Mikhail had to put up with the fact that the first places in the Duma were still occupied by the highest titled nobility and the old boyars, who had once judged the Romanovs and handed them over to Boris Godunov for execution. During the Time of Troubles, Filaret called them his worst enemies. To enlist the support of the nobility, Tsar Mikhail, having no treasury or lands, generously distributed Duma ranks. Under him, the Boyar Duma became more numerous and influential than ever. After Filaret's return from captivity, the composition of the Duma was sharply reduced. The restoration of the economy and state order began. In 1617, in the village of Stolbovo (near Tikhvin), an “eternal peace” was signed with Sweden. The Swedes returned Novgorod and other northwestern cities to Russia, but the Swedes retained the Izhora land and Korela. Russia lost access to the Baltic Sea, but it managed to get out of the war with Sweden. In 1618, the Truce of Dowlin was concluded with Poland for fourteen and a half years. Russia lost Smolensk and about three dozen more Smolensk, Chernigov and Seversk cities. The contradictions with Poland were not resolved, but only postponed: both sides were not able to continue the war any further. The terms of the truce were very difficult for the country, but Poland refused to claim the throne. The Time of Troubles in Russia is over. Russia managed to defend its independence, but at a very heavy price. The country was ruined, the treasury was empty, trade and crafts were disrupted. It took several decades to restore the economy. The loss of important territories predetermined further wars for their liberation, which placed a heavy burden on the entire country. The Time of Troubles further strengthened Russia's backwardness. Russia emerged from the Troubles extremely exhausted, with huge territorial and human losses. According to some estimates, up to a third of the population died. Overcoming economic ruin will be possible only by strengthening serfdom. The country's international position has sharply deteriorated. Russia found itself in political isolation, its military potential weakened, and for a long time its southern borders remained practically defenseless. Anti-Western sentiments intensified in the country, which aggravated its cultural and, ultimately, civilizational isolation. The people managed to defend their independence, but as a result of their victory, autocracy and serfdom were revived in Russia. However, most likely, there was no other way to save and preserve Russian civilization in those extreme conditions.

20. Major events during the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich (salt riot, copper riot, dispute between the tsar and the patriarch, city uprisings, Stepan Razin’s riot).

1646 - Salt riot in Moscow, the population of the city attacked the royal retinue. Muscovites wanted to be given two clerks and boyar Morozov, who was the tsar's educator. He managed to hide from the angry people, and the Muscovites carried out lynching over the clerks Trakhaniotov and Pleshcheev. This influenced the authorities, and the salt tax was abolished, while at the same time increasing the collection of direct taxes. Soon the situation began to escalate again, the state demanded more money from the population. They began to levy taxes not on land, but on households; they took tax on income several times; they issued copper coins that were worth the same as silver coins.

1648 - Publication of a decree on the indefinite search of fugitive peasants. Return of Smolensk, Chernigov and a number of other cities to Russia.

1649 - Compilation of the “Code” (a set of Russian laws).

1654 - Pereyaslav Rada. Reunification of Left Bank Ukraine with Russia.

1654-1667 - War with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth for the annexation of Left-Bank Ukraine, ending with the Truce of Andrusovo (January 30, 1667).

1656-1658 - War with Sweden, which ended with the Truce of Valiesar (December 20, 1658) for three years.

1658 - Construction of new cities in Siberia begins (Nerchinsk, Irkutsk, Selenginsk).

1662 - Copper riot in Moscow. By that time, prices had increased sharply again, and many refused to believe in copper coins and demanded only silver ones. The revolt was suppressed, but the minting of coins was stopped.

1662-1666 - Establishment of regular infantry with the involvement of more than a hundred foreign colonels. 1668-1676 - Solovetsky uprising.

1670-1671 - Rebellion led by Stenka Razin, which ended with his execution. The actions of Razin and his followers evoke sympathy among the people and a desire to support them, and over time they attract them, so thousands of ordinary people, peasants and townspeople go over to Razin’s side and help ensure that the movement achieves its goal. Stepan Razin creates “charming letters” - appeals that attract simple people, burdened by constant, unfair taxes. Construction of the first Russian ships in the village of Dedilovo on the Oka River.

21. Culture of Russia in the 19th century.

XV11th century A unique period in the history of Russian culture. It completes the development of culture over the previous centuries. This transition of culture in the 11th century, in turn, led to very interesting trends in it. Many genres continue to exist, but new content is maturing within them, exploding them from the inside. There are processes of secularization, secularization of culture, and its humanization. Interest in a person and his life intensifies. All this breaks out of the narrow framework of the medieval canon, sometimes creating crisis phenomena, and sometimes leading to an unprecedented rise of spirit, which now stuns our imagination. This century turned out to be a turning point for the development of Russian music. Church music is becoming more festive. “Kants” appear - musical works that were performed outside the church. In Russian architecture of the 11th century. Also occupies a special place. The desire to abandon age-old canons and “secularize” art manifested itself with enormous force. Wooden architecture played a major role in the development of architecture in general. Back at the end of the 15th century. An order for stone affairs arose, concentrating the best forces in this area. The techniques of stone architecture have improved, and the volume of buildings has become significantly more complex. Various side chapels and extensions are adjacent to the main massif; covered porch galleries, etc., are becoming widespread. Craftsmen began to widely use colored tiles, complex brick belts and other decorative details, which is why the facades of buildings take on an unusually elegant, colorful appearance. The first collections of proverbs appeared, many of which have survived to this day. Legends, songs and tales are widespread. One of their favorite heroes is Stepan Razin, who is endowed with heroic traits and finds himself in the same circle with the epic heroes. Handwritten books are becoming more widespread, especially collections containing various materials. The increase in written records led to the final victory of cursive writing and new attempts to organize paper production in Russia. Along with handwritten books, printed books became more and more widespread. There was an active printing house, which also produced educational literature (for example, “Grammar” by Meletiy Smotrytsky). Chronicles remained one of the main monuments of socio-political thought and literature. At this time, the patriarchal vaults, the Belsky and Mazurin chroniclers, and the vaults of 1652 and 1686 were created. and many other chronicle monuments. Along with all-Russian ones, provincial, local, family and even family chronicles appear. The focus of the writers of that time was increasingly on questions of economic life and political problems.

22. Beginning of the reign of Peter I. Power struggle.

From 1682 to 1696 The Russian throne was occupied by the sons of Tsar Alexei from different marriages - Peter (1672-1725) and Ivan (1666-1696). Since they were minors, the ruler was their sister Princess Sophia (1657-1704), who ruled from 1682 to 1689. During this period, the role of Prince V. Golitsyn (1643-1714), the princess’s favorite, increased.

In 1689, Peter I came of age, got married and showed a desire to fight the old outdated boyar traditions. Sophia made an attempt, with the help of the archers, dissatisfied with the creation of regiments of the new system and the loss of many of her privileges, to deprive Peter of power. However, she failed. Peter was supported by the Preobrazhensky and Semenovsky regiments, many boyars and nobles, the Moscow Patriarch and even some streltsy regiments. Peter retained the throne, punished the rebel Streltsy, disbanded the Streltsy army, and Sophia was tonsured into a monastery.

In 1696, Ivan V died, Peter became the sole ruler. Peter's first task was to continue the fight for Crimea. He directed his actions towards the capture of Azov, a Turkish fortress at the mouth of the Don. But due to poorly prepared siege equipment and the lack of ships, the Russian troops failed. Then Peter began building a fleet on the river. Voronezh. Having built 30 large ships in one year, doubling his land army, Peter in 1696 blocked Azov from the sea and captured it. To gain a foothold on the Sea of ​​Azov, he built the Taganrog fortress. In 1697, he went with the “Great Embassy” to Europe, combining a diplomatic mission with a variety of educational tasks in shipbuilding, military affairs, and crafts.

23. Northern War. Main battles.

1. Having secured the support of a number of European powers, Peter I declared war on Sweden in 1700, and the Northern War began (1700–1721).

2. At the first stage of the war, Russian troops were defeated during the siege of Narva. The first setbacks, however, did not break Peter; he energetically set about creating a regular army.

3. The Russians won their first significant victory near Dorpat at the end of 1701. This was followed by new victories - the capture of the Noteburg (Oreshek) fortress, which received the new name Shlisselburg.

4. In 1703, Peter I founded a new city - St. Petersburg - to protect the Neva from the Swedes. He later moved the capital of Russia here. In 1704, Russian troops managed to capture Narva and the Ivan-Gorod fortress.

5. The most significant battle of the Northern War was the victorious Battle of Poltava for the Russian army (June 27, 1709), which changed the entire course of the war and increased the prestige of Russia.

6. The war after the Battle of Poltava continued for another 12 years. It ended in 1721 with the Peace of Nystad.

Year and place of battle

Result

1703, spring-fall of Nyenschantz

1704 - Capture of the cities of Yam, Koporye, Dorpat, Narva

1710-Capture of Riga, Revel, Vyborg, Kexholm

1714 - Capture of the Åland Islands, landing on the Swedish coast

24. The main reforms of Peter I.

The goals of the reforms of Peter I (1682-1725) were to maximize the power of the tsar, increase the military power of the country, territorial expansion of the state and access to the sea. The most prominent associates of Peter I are A. D. Menshikov, G. I. Golovkin, F. M. Apraksin, P. I. Yaguzhinsky.

Military reform. A regular army was created through conscription, new regulations were introduced, a fleet was built, and equipment was built in a Western manner.

Reform government controlled. The Boyar Duma was replaced by the Senate (1711), orders - by collegiums. The “Table of Ranks” was introduced. The decree on succession to the throne allows the king to appoint anyone as heir. The capital was moved to St. Petersburg in 1712. In 1721 Peter accepted the imperial title.

Church reform. The patriarchate was abolished, the church began to be governed by the Holy Synod. The priests were transferred to government salaries. No15

Changes in the economy. A capitation tax was introduced. Up to 180 manufactories were created. State monopolies were introduced on various goods. Canals and roads are being built.

Social reforms. The Decree on Single Inheritance (1714) equated estates to estates and prohibited their splitting during inheritance. Passports are being introduced for peasants. Serfs and slaves are actually equated.

Reforms in the field of culture. Navigation, Engineering, Medical and other schools, the first public theater, the first Vedomosti newspaper, a museum (Kunstkamera), and the Academy of Sciences were created. Nobles are sent to study abroad. Western dress for nobles, beard shaving, smoking, and assemblies are introduced.

Results. Absolutism is finally formed. Russia's military power is growing. The antagonism between the top and bottom is intensifying. Serfdom begins to take on slave forms. The upper class merged into one noble class.

In 1698, the archers, dissatisfied with the worsening conditions of service, rebelled; in 1705-1706. There was an uprising in Astrakhan, on the Don and in the Volga region in 1707-1709. - uprising of K. A. Bulavin, in 1705-1711. - in Bashkiria.

25. The era of palace coups in the ΧVΙΙΙ century.

January 28, 1725 Peter 1 died. The question arose about the heir. According to the decree on succession to the throne (1722), the emperor must appoint his own heir. However, he did not have time to do this. The contenders for the throne were Peter's widow, Ekaterina Alekseevna, and his grandson, Peter Alekseevich. Menshikov, with the help of the guards regiments, elevated Ekaterina Alekseevna to the throne. Since she did not show state abilities, Menshikov became the de facto ruler of the country. For better government, the Supreme Privy Council was created - the highest state body that limited the power of the Senate. It included A. D. Menshikov, F. M. Apraksin, G. I. Golovkin, P. A. Tolstoy, A. I. Osterman, D. M. Golitsyn and the Duke of Holstein Karl Friedrich - the husband of Peter I’s eldest daughter Anna . The majority of the Supreme Privy Council was made up of the closest advisers of Peter 1, only Prince D. M. Golitsyn belonged to the old nobility. P. A. Tolstoy’s attempt to oppose A. D. Menshikov led to his exile and death on Solovki. This election opens the era of palace coups. A palace coup is a change of power carried out by a narrow circle of members of court groups and the hands of guard regiments. In May 1727 Catherine 1 died. Shortly before her death, she chose 12-year-old Tsarevich Peter, the son of the murdered Tsarevich Alexei, as her successor. After the death of Catherine, as during her life, the country was actually ruled by Menshikov; by decree of the emperor, he appointed himself generalissimo. Menshikov hoped to marry his daughter Maria to Peter 11. But during Menshikov’s illness, the Dolgorukov princes and Vice-Chancellor Osterman reinstated Peter against his Serene Highness. Menshikov was arrested, deposed by decision of the Upper Privy Council and, together with his family, exiled to the Siberian city of Berezov, where he died 2 years later. The Supreme Privy Council under Peter II underwent significant changes. In it, all affairs were carried out by four princes Dolgoruky and two Golitsyn, as well as the master of intrigue A.I. Osterman. The Dolgorukies came to the fore. Sixteen-year-old Ivan Dolgoruky was the tsar’s closest friend in hound hunting and his other pastimes. Ivan's sister Catherine became the "sovereign bride". The nobles who came to Moscow for the coronation and wedding, as well as the court that moved to the old capital, witnessed the illness and death of Peter II in his fifteenth year of life. Peter's death occurred precisely on the day of the announced wedding. The Romanov dynasty ended in the male line. The question of a new emperor had to be decided by the Supreme Privy Council.

Disputes immediately began in the Privy Council about the candidacy of the ruler of Russia. It was decided to invite the niece of Peter 1 (daughter of his brother Ivan) - Anna Ivanovna (1730-1740). The symbol of Anna’s reign became the Secret Chancellery, headed by A. I. Ushakov, which monitored speeches against the empress and “state crimes” (the famous “word and case"). 10 thousand people passed through the Secret Chancellery.

The absolutist state met the demands of the nobles to expand their rights and privileges. Thus, under Anna Ioannovna, the distribution of land to the nobles was resumed. In 1731, sole inheritance, introduced by Peter the Great's decree of 1714, was abolished, and estates were recognized as the full property of the nobility. Two new guards regiments were created - Izmailovsky and Horse Guards, where a significant part of the officers were foreigners. Since the 30s of the 18th century. noble minors were allowed to enroll in the guards regiments, train at home and, after an exam, be promoted to officers. In 1732, the Land Noble Cadet Corps was opened to train nobles. This was followed by the opening of the Naval, Artillery, and Page Corps. Since 1736, the service life for nobles was limited to 25 years. In the fall of 1740. Anna Ivanovna fell ill and died in October. But, dying, she took care of the heir: the two-month-old son of Anna Leopoldovna’s niece, Ivan 1V Antonovich, was appointed to him, and Biron became his regent. Biron reigned for only 22 days. He was overthrown by Minich, and Anna Leopoldovna became regent. In November 1741 The guards-conspirators, outraged by the dominance of the Germans, elevated the daughter of Peter I, Ekaterina Petrovna (1741-1761), to the throne. Elizaveta Petrovna proclaimed the goal of her reign to be a return to the order of her father, Peter the Great. The rights of the Senate, the Berg and Manufactory Collegium, and the Chief Magistrate were restored. Under Elizabeth, a university was opened in Moscow (1755, January 25) - the first in Russia. The conference at the highest court took the place of the abolished Cabinet of Ministers. The activities of the Secret Chancellery became invisible. To support the nobility, the Noble Land Bank was established. After the death of Elizabeth Petrovna in 1761, 33-year-old Peter III (1761-1762) became Emperor of Russia. The quarrelsome, unbalanced Peter III did not like Russians, but he idolized Frederick II. A fan of Prussian drill, Peter III said that he preferred to be a colonel in the Prussian army than to be an emperor in Russia. This “adult child” has not developed as a mature personality, most He spent time in revelry and loved shift parades. His favorite pastime was playing soldiers.

The six-month reign of Peter III amazes with the abundance of adopted state acts. During this time, 192 decrees were issued. The most important of them was the Manifesto on the granting of freedom and liberty to the Russian nobility of February 18, 1762. The Manifesto exempted nobles from compulsory state and military service. A nobleman could leave service at any time, except during war. It was allowed to travel abroad and even enter foreign service, and educate children at home. On June 28, 1762, guards officers led by the Orlov brothers and the wife of Peter III, Catherine, carried out a palace coup. The Izmailovsky and Semenovsky Guards regiments enthusiastically supported the new ruler, who was proclaimed autocratic empress in the Kazan Cathedral in St. Petersburg. The Manifesto on the accession of Catherine II to the throne was read in the Winter Palace. The Senate and Synod swore allegiance to her. The next day, Peter III signed his abdication from the throne. A few days later he died (apparently, he was killed by Alexei Orlov and the guards.

26. “Enlightened absolutism” of Catherine II.

It is known that the reign of Catherine coincided with the era of enlightenment. One way or another, the ideology of the enlighteners - Voltaire, Diderot, Montesquieu and others influenced the policies of European monarchs. Catherine did not escape such influence. Possessing a lively mind and developed thinking, she was familiar with the works of the Enlightenment and their views on government and government. Already as a Russian empress, she corresponded with Voltaire and Diderot, discussing with them the problems of organizing power and the role of the monk in governing society. We must not forget that the empress had to implement her views, gleaned from the Enlightenment, in a huge autocratic state, based on the political and economic dominance of the nobility, which did not tolerate infringement of its interests. Finding the resultant between the goals of power and the privileged class was not easy. However, the events of the first years of Catherine’s reign are traditionally associated with the implementation of a policy of enlightened absolutism. In addition to the distribution of state-owned lands and peasants, already familiar to the aristocracy, as a reward to participants in the palace coup, Catherine carried out a number of reforms that helped strengthen her power. So, she abolished the special Hetman rule in Ukraine, reformed the Senate, in which she saw a danger to her autocratic

authorities. In order to avoid the possibility of interference in the competence of the supreme power and to streamline its work, Catherine divided the Senate into 6 departments, thereby making it a purely administrative body, deprived of legislative rights. 4 St. Petersburg and 2 Moscow departments of the Senate became independent institutions with their own range of affairs and their own office, which destroyed the unity of the Senate and weakened it. Contrary to the personal desire of the Empress to abandon all legislative acts adopted by Peter 111, she had to confirm some of them, and above all: the Decree on the abolition of the Secret Investigation Office of the Chancellery; decree on transfer to the state. management of monastic and church lands (secularization); prohibition of buying peasants into factories. But the most remarkable event of the beginning of Catherine’s era, of course, was the work of the Statutory Commission. Even in her youth, having studied the views of European philosophers, and again returning to this activity as an empress, Catherine came to the conclusion that order and stability in the state, the well-being of her subjects, could be ensured by achieving compliance with the laws. Therefore, she saw her immediate task in creating a new, more advanced system of legislation to replace the archaic Council Code of 1649. Another interesting undertaking of Catherine 11 was the creation in 1765. A free economic society, which was supposed to promote rational methods of farming. For this purpose, various works on agronomy, breeding, animal husbandry, etc. began to be published.

27. Diplomacy and wars of Catherine’s time.

The reign of Catherine 11 occupies a special place in the history of Russian diplomacy. For the first time since the era of Peter 1, the outstanding victories of the Russian army were supported by no less brilliant successes of diplomats. Türkiye, incited by France and England, declared war on Russia in the fall of 1768. Military operations began in 1769 and were carried out on the territory of Moldova and Wallachia, as well as on the Azov coast, where, after the capture of Azov and Taganrog, Russia began building a fleet. In 1770, the Russian army under the command of the talented commander P. A. Rumyantsev won brilliant victories at the Larga and Cahul rivers (tributaries of the Prut River) and reached the Danube. In the same year, the Russian fleet under the command of A.G. Orlov and admirals G.A. Spiridov and I.S. Greig, leaving St. Petersburg, entered the Mediterranean Sea through Gibraltar and completely destroyed the Turkish squadron in Chesme Bay off the coast of Asia Minor. The Turkish fleet was blocked in the Black Sea.

In 1771, Russian troops under the command of Prince V.M. Dolgorukov captured Crimea, which meant the end of the war. However, Turkey, relying on the support of France and Austria and taking advantage of the internal difficulties of Russia, where the Peasant War was going on, disrupted the negotiations. Then in 1774 the Russian army crossed the Danube. Troops under the command of A.V. Suvorov defeated the army of the Grand Vizier near the village of Kozludzha, opening the way to Istanbul for the main forces led by P.A. Rumyantsev. Türkiye was forced to ask for peace. Peace of Kyuchuk-Kainardzhiy 1774. Determining the program of Russian foreign policy in the Black Sea-Balkan direction for decades, the effective mediating role of Russia during the Teshen Congress of 1779, the proclamation in 1780. The principle of armed maritime neutrality, which became a serious contribution of Russia and the strengthening of the legal basis of international relations, the annexation of Crimea and the Northern Black Sea region, the signing of the Geogievsky Treaty with Eastern Georgia in 1783, the inclusion of Lithuania into the Russian state, the reunification of Belarus and Right-Bank Ukraine with it. This is far from a complete list of achievements of Catherine’s era. The orientation towards non-state interests was organically combined in the foreign policy activities of Catherine 11 with the diplomatic practice of the era of late absolutism with its desire to “round the borders” and weaken its neighbors. “Rounding the borders”, carrying out multi-vector territorial expansion, Catherine built an empire, guided by the political and moral concepts of her time. From the very beginning of her reign, Catherine firmly took the leadership of foreign policy into her own hands and did not let go of it until the end of her days. The main feature of Catherine’s foreign policy should be the compliance of the foreign policy course pursued by the Empress with the long-term state interests of Russia. Pragmatism, flexibility, ability to take advantage of circumstances.

28. Pugachev rebellion 1773-1775.

In 1773 In the Yaitsky Cossack army, Emelyan Pugachev proclaimed himself Peter 111 Fedorovich. Pugachev was a Don Cossack. He called for the overthrow of the noble Empress Catherine 11, who took it by deceit. E. Pugachev found support on Yaik. The performance began on September 17, 1773. He approached Orenburg and besieged it. The number of rebels reached 30 thousand. Human. March 22, 1773 There was a battle

with the tsarist troops, the Pugachevites were defeated. Pugachev issued a manifesto in which he called for the destruction of nobles and tsarist officials and the liberation of peasants from serfdom. To replenish his army, he rushed to the south, where he was joined by Don and Yaik Cossacks and barge haulers. With them he approached Tsaritsyn, but was never able to take possession of the city. It was soon defeated by the government army. September 12, 1774 He was captured and handed over to the Russians. January 10, 1775 Pugachev and his closest associates were executed.

29. Uprising of the Highlanders North Caucasus under the leadership of Sheikh Mansur (Ushurma).

On March 8, 1785, the Chechen religious and political figure Sheikh Mansur (Ushurma) spoke in the village of Aldy preaching gazavat (holy war) against the Russian army in the Caucasus. In June 1785, the army of Sheikh Mansur defeated the Russian punitive detachment of Colonel Pieri, and in July-August besieged the Kizlyar fortress. By autumn, the uprising spread to the territory of Kabarda and Dagestan. In November 1785, Mansur was defeated in Kabarda, and in January 1787, Colonel Retinder's detachment suppressed the uprising in Chechnya. In the summer, Sheikh Mansur, who went beyond the Kuban, led an uprising of the Trans-Kuban Circassians and Nogais, which was suppressed in October of the same year, and in 1788-1789 he led unrest among the Trans-Volga Kyrgyz-Kaisaks. In June 1791, Mansur actually led the defense of the Turkish fortress of Anapa. After the capture of Anapa by Russian troops on June 21, 1791, Sheikh Mansur was captured and imprisoned in the Shlisselburg fortress (he died on April 13, 1794 in custody). Despite the suppression of the uprising of Sheikh Mansur, the Russian administration of the Caucasus was actually unable to create its own governing bodies on the territory of Chechnya.

30. Reign of Paul I. His domestic and foreign policies.

Domestic policy.

Paul began his reign by changing all the orders of Catherine's rule. During his coronation, Paul announced a series of decrees. In particular, Paul established a clear system of succession to the throne. From that moment on, the throne could only be inherited through the male line; after the death of the emperor, it passed to the eldest son or the next oldest brother if there were no children. A woman could occupy the throne only if the male line was suppressed. With this order, Paul excluded palace coups, when emperors were overthrown and erected by the force of the guard, the reason for which was the lack of a clear system of succession to the throne (which, however, did not prevent palace coup March 12, 1801, during which he himself was killed). Also, in accordance with this decree, a woman could not occupy the Russian throne, which excluded the possibility of temporary workers (who accompanied empresses in the 18th century) or a repetition of a situation similar to the one when Catherine II did not transfer the throne to Paul after he came of age. Paul restored the system of collegiums, and attempts were made to stabilize the financial situation of the country (including the famous action of melting down the palace coin services). With the manifesto on three-day corvee, he prohibited landowners from performing corvee on Sundays, holidays, and more than three days a week (the decree was almost not implemented locally). He significantly narrowed the rights of the noble class compared to those granted by Catherine II, and the rules established in Gatchina were transferred to the entire Russian army. Fearing the spread of the ideas of the French Revolution in Russia, Paul I banned young people from traveling abroad to study, the import of books was completely prohibited, even sheet music, and private printing houses were closed. The regulation of life went so far as to set a time when the fires in houses were supposed to be turned off. By special decrees, some words of the Russian language were removed from official use and replaced with others. Thus, among those seized were the words “citizen” and “fatherland” that had a political connotation (replaced with “everyman” and “state”, respectively), but a number of Paul’s linguistic decrees were not so transparent - for example, the word “detachment” was changed to “detachment” or “command”, “execute” to “execute”, and “doctor” to “doctor”.

Foreign policy.

Paul's foreign policy was inconsistent. In 1798 Russia entered into anti-French coalition with Great Britain, Austria, Turkey, the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. At the insistence of the allies, the disgraced A.V. Suvorov was appointed commander-in-chief of the Russian troops. Austrian troops were also transferred to his jurisdiction. Under the leadership of Suvorov, Northern Italy was liberated from French domination. In September 1799, the Russian army made Suvorov's famous crossing of the Alps. However, already in October of the same year, Russia broke the alliance with Austria due to the Austrians’ failure to fulfill allied obligations, and Russian troops were recalled from Europe.

31. Culture of Russia in the 8th century.

In the 18th century, the pace of cultural development accelerated, which was associated with economic success. The secular direction in art has become the leading one, replacing the traditionalist culture of previous centuries, permeated with a religious worldview. The nature of education is changing, it is also becoming mainly secular. In 1701, the School of Mathematical and Navigational Sciences was founded in Moscow. From the senior classes of this school, transferred to St. Petersburg, later, in 1715, the Maritime Academy was created. Then the Artillery, Engineering, Medical schools, the School of Clerical Servants, and mining schools were opened. In 1708, civil printing was introduced, Arabic numerals, which made it easier to learn. But education as a whole remained class-based, since it did not become universal, compulsory and the same for all categories of the population. An outstanding event was the creation of Moscow University in 1755 on the initiative and project of M.V. Lomonosov and the opening of the Academy of Arts in 1757. Geographic knowledge about the country expanded. The interior regions of Siberia, the coasts of the Caspian and Aral Seas, the Arctic Ocean, middle Asia. In the middle of the century, geographer I.K. Kirillov published the first “Russian Atlas”. V.N. Tatishchev and M.V.

Lomonosov laid the foundation for Russian historical science. Outstanding scientists of that time worked in Russia: mathematician L. Euler, founder of hydrodynamics D. Bernoulli, naturalist K. Wolf, historian A. Schletser. Later, a cohort of Russian scientists appeared - astronomer S.Ya. Rumovsky, mathematician M.E. Golovin, geographers and ethnographers S.P. Krasheninnikov and I.I. Lepekhin, physicist G.V. Richman. Writers, poets and publicists A.D. enriched Russian literature with their works. Kantemir, V.K. Trediakovsky, M.V. Lomonosov, A.P. Sumarokov, N.I. Novikov, later A.N. Radishchev, D.I. Fonvizin, G.R. Derzhavin, I.A. Krylov, N.M. Karamzin et al.

32. Alexander I. Domestic and foreign policy.

Alexander I abolished all the innovations of Paul I: he restored the “letters of letters” to the nobility and cities, freed the nobles and clergy from corporal punishment, declared an amnesty to all those who fled abroad, returned up to 12 thousand disgraced and repressed people from exile, abolished the Secret Expedition, which was engaged in the investigation and reprisal.

After 1801, it was forbidden to print advertisements for the sale of serfs without land, but such sales were allowed. In 1803, a decree on free cultivators was issued, which allowed peasants to buy their freedom by agreement with the landowners. The censorship statute of 1804 was the most liberal in the 19th century. in Russia. In 1803 - 1804, a reform of public education was carried out: representatives of all classes could study, continuity was introduced curricula and new high fur boots and privileged lyceums opened - Demidovsky (in Yaroslavl) and Tsarskoye Selo. State bodies were transformed. management. Through the efforts of M.M. Speransky's old Peter's collegiums were replaced by ministries. In 1811, the law strictly delineated the rights and responsibilities of the Senate, the Committee of Ministers and the State. advice. New state order control existed with minor changes until 1917. In 1805 - 1807, Alexander I took part in coalitions against Napoleon, was defeated at Austerlitz (1805) and was forced to conclude the extremely unpopular Peace of Tilsit in Russia (1807). But successful wars with Turkey (1806-12) and Sweden (1808-09) strengthened Russia's international position. Vost. were annexed. Georgia (1801), Finland (1809), Bessarabia (1812) and Azerbaijan (1813), Duchy of Warsaw (1815). Since 1810, Russian rearmament began. army, the construction of fortresses, but with the archaic system of recruitment and serfdom, this could not be completed. Having granted a liberal constitution to the Kingdom of Poland, he promised in 1818 that this order would be extended to other lands “when they reach proper maturity.” In 1816 - 1819, a peasant reform was carried out in the Baltic states. Were prepared secret projects abolition of serfdom in Russia, but, faced with stiff opposition from the nobles, Alexander I retreated. Since 1816, military settlements have been established, and the role of Alexander I in their creation is no less significant than A.A. Arakcheeva. From 1814, the king became interested in mysticism, bringing Archimandrite Photius closer to him.

In 1822, Alexander I issued a rescript banning secret societies and Masonic lodges, and in 1821 - 1823 introduced an extensive network of secret police in the guard and army. In 1825 he received reliable information about a conspiracy against him among the troops, he went south, wanting to visit military settlements, but caught a bad cold on the way from Balaklava to the St. George Monastery. The unexpected death of Alexander I, a healthy and not yet old man, gave rise to numerous legends.

33. Patriotic War of 1812. Foreign campaigns of the Russian army (1812-1815)

Causes and nature of the war. The outbreak of the Patriotic War of 1812 was caused by Napoleon's desire for world domination. In Europe, only Russia and England maintained their independence. Despite the Treaty of Tilsit, Russia continued to oppose the expansion of Napoleonic aggression. Napoleon was especially irritated by her systematic violation of the continental blockade. Since 1810, both sides, realizing the inevitability of a new clash, were preparing for war. Napoleon flooded the Duchy of Warsaw with his troops and created military warehouses there. The threat of invasion looms over Russia's borders. In turn, the Russian government increased the number of troops in the western provinces.

Napoleon became the aggressor. He began military operations and invaded Russian territory. In this regard, for the Russian people the war became a liberation and Patriotic war, since not only the regular army, but also the broad masses of the people took part in it.

Correlation of forces. In preparation for the war against Russia, Napoleon gathered a significant army - up to 678 thousand soldiers. They were led by a galaxy of brilliant marshals and generals - L. Davout, L. Berthier, M. Ney, I. Murat and others. They were commanded by the most famous commander of that time - Napoleon Bonaparte.

Active preparations for the war that Russia had been waging since 1810 brought results. She managed to create modern armed forces for that time, powerful artillery, which, as it turned out during the war, was superior to the French. The troops were led by talented military leaders - M. I. Kutuzov, M. B. Barclay de Tolly, P. I. Bagration, A. P. Ermolov, N. N. Raevsky, M. A. Miloradovich and others.

However, at the initial stage of the war, the French army outnumbered the Russian one. The first echelon of troops that entered Russia numbered 450 thousand people, while the Russians on the western border were about 210 thousand people, divided into three armies. The 1st - under the command of M.B. Barclay de Tolly - covered the St. Petersburg direction, the 2nd - led by P.I. Bagration - defended the center of Russia, the 3rd - under General A.P. Tormasov - was located in the southern direction .Plans of the parties. Napoleon planned to seize a significant part of Russian territory up to Moscow and sign a new treaty with Alexander to subjugate Russia. Napoleon's strategic plan was based on his military experience acquired during the wars in Europe. He intended to prevent the dispersed Russian forces from uniting and deciding the outcome of the war in one or more border battles. The balance of forces forced the Russian command at first to choose a strategy of active defense. As the course showed

war, this was the most correct decision.

Stages of war. The history of the Patriotic War of 1812 is divided into two stages. First: from June 12 to mid-October - the retreat of the Russian army with rearguard battles in order to lure the enemy deep into Russian territory and disrupt his strategic plan. Second: from mid-October to December 25 - a counter-offensive of the Russian army with the goal of completely expelling the enemy from Russia.

The beginning of the war. On the morning of June 12, 1812, French troops crossed the Neman and invaded Russia by forced march.

The 1st and 2nd Russian armies retreated, avoiding a general battle. They fought stubborn rearguard battles with individual units of the French, exhausting and weakening the enemy, inflicting significant losses on him.

Two main tasks faced the Russian troops - to eliminate disunity (not allow themselves to be defeated one by one) and to establish unity of command in the army. The first task was solved on July 22, when the 1st and 2nd armies united near Smolensk. Thus, Napoleon's original plan was thwarted. On August 8, Alexander appointed M.I. Kutuzov Commander-in-Chief of the Russian Army. This meant solving the second problem. M.I. Kutuzov took command of the combined Russian forces on August 17. He did not change his retreat tactics. However, the army and the whole country expected a decisive battle from him. Therefore, he gave the order to look for a position for a general battle. She was found near the village of Borodino, 124 km from Moscow.

Battle of Borodino. M.I. Kutuzov chose defensive tactics and deployed his troops in accordance with this. The left flank was defended by the army of P.I. Bagration, covered by artificial earthen fortifications - flushes. In the center there was an earthen mound where the artillery and troops of General N.N. Raevsky were located. The army of M.B. Barclay de Tolly was on the right flank.

Napoleon adhered to offensive tactics. He intended to break through the defenses of the Russian army on the flanks, encircle it and completely defeat it.

The balance of forces was almost equal: the French had 130 thousand people with 587 guns, the Russians had 110 thousand regular forces, about 40 thousand militias and Cossacks with 640 guns.

Early in the morning of August 26, the French launched an offensive on the left flank. The fight for flushes lasted until 12 noon. Both sides suffered huge losses. General P.I. Bagration was seriously wounded. (A few days later he died from his wounds.) Borodino was a moral and political victory for the Russians: the combat potential of the Russian army was preserved, while Napoleonic’s was significantly weakened. Far from France, in the vast Russian expanses, it was difficult to restore it.

From Moscow to Maloyaroslavets. After Borodino, Russian troops began to retreat to Moscow. Napoleon followed, but did not strive for a new battle. On September 1, a military council of the Russian command took place in the village of Fili. M.I. Kutuzov, contrary to the general opinion of the generals, decided to leave Moscow. The French army entered it on September 2, 1812.

M.I. Kutuzov, withdrawing troops from Moscow, carried out an original plan - the Tarutino march-maneuver. Retreating from Moscow along the Ryazan road, the army turned sharply to the south and in the Krasnaya Pakhra area reached the old Kaluga road. This maneuver, firstly, prevented the French from seizing the Kaluga and Tula provinces, where ammunition and food were collected. Secondly, M.I. Kutuzov managed to break away from Napoleon’s army. He set up a camp in Tarutino, where the Russian troops rested and were replenished with fresh regular units, militia, weapons and food supplies.

The occupation of Moscow did not benefit Napoleon. Abandoned by the inhabitants (an unprecedented case in history), it burned in the fire. There was no food or other supplies in it. The French army was completely demoralized and turned into a bunch of robbers and marauders. all peace proposals of the French emperor were unconditionally rejected by M. I. Kutuzov and Alexander I.

On October 7, the French left Moscow. On October 12, another bloody battle took place near the town of Maloyaroslavets. Once again, neither side achieved a decisive victory. However, the French were stopped and forced to retreat along the Smolensk road they had destroyed.

Expulsion of Napoleon from Russia. The retreat of the French army looked like a disorderly flight. It was accelerated by the unfolding partisan movement and the offensive actions of the Russians.

The patriotic upsurge began literally immediately after Napoleon entered Russia. Robbery and looting French. The Russian soldiers provoked resistance from local residents. But this was not the main thing - the Russian people could not put up with the presence of invaders on their native land. History includes the names of ordinary people (G. M. Kurin, E. V. Chetvertakov, V. Kozhina) who organized partisan detachments. “Flying detachments” of regular army soldiers led by career officers (A.S. Figner, D.V. Davydov, A.N. Seslavin, etc.) were also sent to the French rear.

On final stage war M.I. Kutuzov chose the tactics of parallel pursuit. He took care of every Russian soldier and understood that the enemy’s forces were melting every day. The final defeat of Napoleon was planned near the city of Borisov. For this purpose, troops were brought up from the south and north-west. Serious damage was inflicted on the French near Krasny in early November, when out of 50 thousand people in the retreating army, more than half were captured or died in battle. Fearing encirclement, Napoleon hastened to transport his troops across the Berezina River on November 14-17. The battle at the crossing completed the defeat of the French army. Napoleon abandoned her and secretly left for Paris. The order of M.I. Kutuzov on the army of December 21 and the Tsar's Manifesto of December 25, 1812 marked the end of the Patriotic War. But Napoleon still kept almost all of Europe in subjection. To ensure its security, Russia continued military operations in Europe. In January 1813, Russian troops entered Prussia. Austria, England, and Sweden joined Russia. In October 1813, the battle of Leipzig took place - the “battle of the nations.” Napoleon was defeated. In March 1814 Paris fell. In 1814-1815 The Vienna Congress of European States took place, Norton decided on the issue of the post-war structure of Europe. By decision of the congress, the Polish kingdom entered the Russian Empire. In March 1815, Russia, England, Austria and Prussia signed an agreement to form a quadruple alliance. Victory in the Patriotic War strengthened Russia's international position as a strong European power.

The term "Time of Troubles" was adopted by historians of the 18th-19th centuries. During the Soviet period, historians rejected it as “noble-bourgeois”, proposing instead a “peasant war and foreign intervention", which, of course, does not fully correspond to the definition of this period. Now the concept of "Troubles" is returning, and at the same time it is proposed to name the events of the beginning of the 17th century in Russia civil war, because almost all social groups and strata were involved in them. Hidden interventionThe crisis situation of the beginning of the 17th century. in Russia, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth took advantage (Lithuania and Poland united by the Union of Lublin in 1569). Having fled from the Kremlin Chudov Monastery to Poland and declaring himself Tsar Dmitry (in fact, he died in 1591 in Uglich), Grigory Otrepiev was supported by Polish magnates, with the help of whom he, at the head of a 4,000-strong army, launched a campaign against Moscow in 1604. Peasants and townspeople from the western border lands began to go over to his side, and after Godunov’s unexpected death, the boyars too. In June 1605, False Dmitry I entered Moscow and was proclaimed tsar. However, the policies he pursued did not satisfy either the ruling elite or the masses. The cup of patience was filled with his wedding with the Catholic Marina Mnishek. On May 17, 1606 he was killed. Vasily Shuisky became king, who ruled primarily based on the interests of the boyars and at the same time strengthened enslavement measures. The peasant uprising was a continuation of previous uprisings. peasant revolt under the leadership of Ivan Bolotnikov (1606-1607). The campaign also began from the western Russian lands (Komaritskaya volost). The army was heterogeneous in social composition: Cossacks, peasants, serfs, townspeople, service people of all ranks. The uprising had a tsarist orientation: Bolotnikov himself acted as the governor of Tsar Dmitry Ivanovich. After conducting a series of successful battles against government searches, the Bolotnikovites approached Moscow. After a two-month siege, due to the betrayal of the nobles, they were forced to retreat to Kaluga, and then Tula, where they capitulated to the tsarist army. The reasons for the defeat were spontaneity, poor armament, the diversity of the social composition of the rebels, and the vagueness of the program. Transition to open intervention Even when Vasily Shuisky was leading the siege of Tula, a new impostor appeared in Poland - False Dmitry II, who, unlike False Dmitry I, was nominated internal forces, was a protege from the very beginning Polish king Sigismund III. His army included Polish troops, Cossacks, as well as remnants of the Bolotnikovites. Having defeated Shuisky's troops in several clashes, in June 1608 the impostor approached Moscow and stopped in the town of Tushino. The Tushino camp was formed. Orders and the Boyar Duma were formed, the patriarch was “named” (he became Filaret, in the world the boyar Folor Nikitovich Romanov). Thus, the Tushins resisted the tsarist government and the government of Vasily Shuisky. Their power extended to a significant part of the country (north and northwest). A powerful fortress, the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, was besieged. Taking advantage of the fact that the Moscow government entered into an alliance with Sweden in February 1609, Poland, which was at war with it, moved on to open intervention in Russia. In September, the siege of Smolensk by Sigismund III began. The further task was the direct conquest of Russian lands, and the Polish king began to lay claim to the royal throne. In the summer of 1610, Polish troops moved towards Moscow. Under these conditions, the boyars and nobles carried out a coup in July 1610: they overthrew Shuisky. A transitional government of seven boyars was formed - the “seven boyars” (1610-1612). The boyars, planning to place the Polish prince Vladislav on the Russian throne, allowed Polish troops into the Kremlin, led by Hetman Gonsevsky, who began to rule autocratically in the country. And in the north the Swedes took over the occupation. Russia faced a direct threat of losing its independence. The First and Second People's Militia Now only relying on the masses could it be possible to win and preserve the independence of the Russian state. The idea of ​​a national militia is maturing in the country. By February-March 1611, the first militia was formed. Its leader was the Ryazan governor Prokopiy Lyapunov. Soon the militia laid siege to Moscow, and on March 19, a decisive battle took place, in which the rebel Muscovites took part. It was not possible to liberate the city. Remaining at the city walls, the militia created supreme body authorities - the Council of the whole earth. On June 30, 1611, the “Verdict of the Whole Land” was adopted, which provided for the future structure of Russia, but infringed on the rights of the Cossacks and also had a serfdom character. After the murder of Lyapunov by the Cossacks, the first militia disintegrated. By this time, the Swedes had captured Novgorod, and the Poles, after a months-long siege, had captured Smolensk. The second militia began to be created in one of the largest cities in the country - Nizhny Novgorod. It was headed by Nizhny Novgorod elder Kuzma Minin and Prince Dmitry Pozharsky. With the help of the population of many cities, material resources were collected. In the spring of 1612, the militia moved to Yaroslavl, where a government and orders were created. In August, the militia entered Moscow. After eliminating the attempts of the Polish detachment of Chodkiewicz to penetrate the Kremlin to help the Polish garrison located there, he surrendered. On October 26, 1612, Moscow was liberated. “Despite all the consequences of the oprichnina,” notes the modern historian N.N. Pokrovsky, “the importance of the zemshchina, which saved the fatherland from foreign robbery, was confirmed on a national scale.”

31. The first Romanovs. Socio-economic and political development Russia in comparison with Renaissance Europe Historians include Mikhail Fedorovich (1613 - 1645) and his son Alexei Mikhailovich (1645 - 1676) as the first Romanovs.
Mikhail Fedorovich inherited a completely ruined country. The Swedes were in Novgorod. The Poles occupied 20 Russian towns. The Tatars plundered the southern Russian lands without interruption. Crowds of beggars and gangs of robbers roamed the country. There was not a ruble in the royal treasury. The Poles did not recognize the elections of the Zemsky Sobor of 1613 as valid. In 1617, the Polish prince Vladislav organized a campaign against Moscow, stood at the walls of the Kremlin and demanded that the Russians elect him as their king.
And the young tsar sat in the Kremlin. He didn’t even have the troops to leave the Kremlin and fight Vladislav. Father Metropolitan Filaret, an experienced politician, could have helped him in the affairs of government, but he was in Polish captivity. Michael's position on the throne was desperate.
But society, tired of the disasters of the Time of Troubles, rallied around its young king and provided him with all possible assistance. At first, the Tsar’s mother and her relatives, the Boyar Duma, played a large role in governing the country. For the first 10 years of the reign, the Zemsky Sobors met continuously. In 1619, the king's father returned from Polish captivity. In Moscow he was proclaimed patriarch. Based on the interests of the state, Filaret removed his wife and all her relatives from the throne. Smart, powerful, experienced, he and his son confidently began to rule the country until his death in 1633. After that, Mikhail himself quite successfully dealt with the affairs of state government. Measures of the Romanovs to lead the country out of the Time of Troubles The Romanovs defended the country's independence. Mikhail did not have the strength to fight his opponents. It was necessary to make peace with those with whom it was possible. It was not difficult to come to an agreement with the Swedes. They did not need the swampy Russian lands in the north of the country. Their goal was to cut off Russia from the Baltic Sea.
In 1617, the Treaty of Stolbovo was concluded with Sweden (the village of Stolbovo, not far from Tikhvin, modern Leningrad region). Sweden returned Novgorod, but retained the Baltic Sea coast.
The Poles were tired of the long war and agreed to a truce. In 1618, the Truce of Deulino was concluded for 14.5 years (the village of Deulino near the Trinity-Sergius Monastery). The Poles returned the Tsar's father, Metropolitan Filaret, and other boyars to the Russians, but retained Smolensk, the most important Russian fortress in the region. western border and other Russian cities.
Thus, Russia lost significant territories, but the Romanovs defended the independence of Russia.
The Romanovs put an end to crime in the country using the most brutal measures. Thus, the Cossack detachments of Ataman Ivan Zarutsky posed a great danger to Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich. Marina Mnishek moved to him after the death of False Dmitry II. Marina Mnishek was a Russian Tsarina, and her son from the Tushinsky thief - "Vorenok" - was a legitimate contender for the Russian throne. I. Zarutsky’s detachment wandered around the country and did not recognize Mikhail Romanov as tsar. The Romanovs began to pursue I. Zarutsky. The Yaik Cossacks handed over I. Zarutsky and Marina Mnishek to the Moscow authorities. I. Zarutsky and 3-year-old Ivan - “Vorenok” - were hanged in Moscow, and Marina Mnishek was imprisoned in Kolomna, where she died.
The Romanovs filled the state treasury:

· they taxed more and more categories of the population;

· the government embarked on outright financial adventures - sharply increased the price of salt (salt was the most important food product, the population bought it in large quantities), minted copper coins instead of silver;

· borrowed from large monasteries and did not repay the debts;

· actively developed Siberia - 1/3 of all income was brought to the treasury by the sale of Siberian furs abroad. These basic measures allowed the Romanovs to lead the country out of the deepest political and economic crisis. The Romanovs were able to overcome the consequences of the Time of Troubles in 30 years.
During the reign of the first Romanovs, the most important events in Russian history took place: the adoption of the Law Code of 1649, the church reforms of Patriarch Nikon in 1653, the reunification of Ukraine with Russia in 1654.
Adoption of the “Conciliar Code” of 1649 During the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich, the Zemsky Sobor of 1649 adopted the “Cathedral Code” - a new collection of laws.
The Council Code consisted of 25 chapters and contained about 1000 articles. The Code was first printed in 2000 copies and remained in force until 1832.
The "Cathedral Code" of 1649 completed long process the formation of serfdom in Russia, which began in 1497.
Church reforms of Patriarch Nikon. During the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich in 1653, Patriarch Nikon carried out church reforms. They shook the spiritual foundation of society - the Russian Church.

Since by the middle of the 17th century there had finally been a relative stabilization of the internal life of the Russian state, fundamentally new priorities came to the forefront of public consciousness. For the first time, there is a shift in the consciousness of citizens towards an interest in European values ​​and way of life. At this time, Europe is experiencing an era of great geographical discoveries, the development of oceanic civilizations, the first prerequisites for the processes of globalism arise in European political and social systems. Russian consciousness, fueled by the echoes of these phenomena, synthesizes the first prerequisites for Westernizing sentiments in society, government system feels a conscious need to borrow some features of Western power and social systems. The liberalization of consciousness manifested itself precisely in the reforms of Patriarch Nikon. In the same time reverse processes, holding Russia on the path of Europeanization, led to the brutal and final enslavement of the peasantry.

32. Popular movements in Russia in the 17th century. The 17th century is called the “rebellious century.” The scope and severity of popular movements were explained by many reasons: the completion of the process of enslavement of the peasantry and the deterioration of the situation of the tax-paying classes ( Cathedral Code 1649), energetic actions aimed at centralizing the state (in particular, increasing taxes, streamlining the monetary system, attempts to reduce state expenses, etc.), church schism. The straw that overflowed the cup of patience was often the clumsy and even criminal behavior of civil servants (bribery, red tape). A characteristic feature of social movements of the 17th century. - participation of a wide variety of segments of the population: townspeople and service people, nobles, Cossacks, peasants, archers, and sometimes boyars. The series of urban uprisings was opened by the Moscow Salt Riot of 1648. The protest of the archers against non-payment of wages merged with the discontent of the townspeople, outraged by the abuses of employees, and the nobles, who demanded to cancel fixed-term summers and attach the peasants to the land. The rebellion took such acute forms that it forced Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich to hand over the hated dignitaries (L. Pleshcheev, P. Trakhaniotov, etc.) to execution, send the head of government, boyar B. Morozov, into exile and urgently convene the Zemsky Sobor and adopt the Council Code. Unrest also occurred in Voronezh, Vladimir, Kozlov, etc. In 1650, uprisings broke out in Novgorod and Pskov. Protesting against the decision to pay off debts with Sweden by transferring grain reserves to it, as well as against rising prices, the Novgorodians and Pskovites removed the tsarist governors from power, established an elected government headed by zemstvo elders and sent petitioners to Moscow. The response was the arrival of government troops in Novgorod and Pskov and the suppression of the protest (Novgorod submitted relatively easily, Pskov resisted for several months). The last major urban uprising was the Copper Riot in Moscow (1662), caused by an unsuccessful monetary reform: the minting of copper coins inflated the ruble exchange rate, prices rose, and the salaries of soldiers and archers and the income of artisans fell. Pogroms of boyar households, the appearance of excited petitioners before the Tsar in Kolomenskoye, brutal reprisals and public executions - this is the history of this rebellion. Throughout the 17th century. It was restless on the Don, in the Cossack villages. From time immemorial, fugitive serfs from the central regions of Russia came here for freedom and security. The Cossacks, the main military support of the state on the southern borders of Russia, had to be reckoned with. In the traditions of the Don Cossacks there were “campaigns for zipuns”, predatory raids on the coast of the Azov, Black, and Caspian seas. This is how the movement of Cossacks and peasants began under the leadership of Stepan Razin. In 1667-1669. his detachment attacked merchant and royal caravans on the Volga and the Caspian Sea (possessions of Persia). In 1670, having rested on the Don, Razin set out on a campaign against the “sovereign traitors” - boyars, governors, nobles, clerks, for the “good king” and “will” (calls of the “charming”, from the word “to seduce”, letters ). The rebels claimed that they were supported by the disgraced Patriarch Nikon and Tsarevich Alexei. Peasants, townspeople, archers, and peoples of the Volga region joined the movement. Tsaritsyn, Astrakhan, Samara, Saratov were captured, and Simbirsk was besieged. Only at the beginning of October did the troops manage to defeat the main forces of the rebels. Razin went to the Don, where he was captured, handed over to the Tsar and executed in Moscow in June 1671. In the uprising of S. Razin, all the features of popular movements of the 17th-18th centuries are noticeable: spontaneity, weak organization, locality, cruelty, which was shown by both the rebels and the authorities. It gave rise to conflicts and church schism. The Old Believers, who held on to the “ancient faith” and rejected the “Latin charm” (the liturgical books and rituals corrected according to Greek models), resisted desperately and stubbornly. In 1668, an uprising broke out in the Solovetsky Monastery. It took eight years to suppress the protest of the monks who did not want to accept church innovations. The depth, radicalism, high pace of Peter’s transformations, the harsh and even cruel nature of their implementation explain the massiveness and diversity of forms of popular movements late XVI I - first quarter of the 18th century: uprising of the archers (1682 and 1698), uprising of the archers and townspeople in Astrakhan (1705-1706), Bashkir uprising (1705-1711), uprising of the Cossacks led by Kondraty Bulavin (1707-1708). The participation of the archers, townspeople, Cossacks, peoples of the Volga region and the Urals, Old Believers, and peasants gives a clear idea of ​​the price that society paid for the necessary, but extremely painful reforms. The culmination of popular movements of the second half of the 18th century. (peasant uprising in Kizhi, plague riot of 1771 in Moscow, etc.) was an uprising led by Emelyan Pugachev. In terms of scope (Middle and Lower Volga region, Ural region, Trans-Ural region), number (at least 30 thousand) and composition of participants (Cossacks, serfs, peoples of the Volga region, schismatic Old Believers, working people of Ural factories), level of organization (Pugachev, declaring himself a miraculously escaped emperor Peter III, established a “military board”, published “manifestos” on the abolition of serfdom, all taxes, conscription, appointed “generals” from his associates, established his own order) the Pugachev movement became the most powerful movement of popular protest in the history of Russia. This was the response of the masses to the strengthening of serfdom, the infringement of the freedoms of the Cossacks, and the merciless treatment of workers of the Ural factories. There are three stages in Pugachev’s movement: September 1773 - April 1774 (siege of Orenburg by the rebels, successful actions near Ufa, Yekaterinburg, Chelyabinsk, etc., defeat at the Tatishchev Fortress); May-July 1774 (successful actions in the Urals, capture of Kazan and heavy defeat inflicted by General Michelson); July-September 1774 (flight, which, according to A. S. Pushkin, seemed like an invasion: movement along the Volga to the south, the capture of Saransk, Penza, Saratov, the siege of Tsaritsyn and the defeat inflicted by the rebel army under the command of A. V. Suvorov) . Pugachev, betrayed by the Cossack elders, was executed in Moscow in January 1775. Pugachev’s uprising had very serious consequences: Catherine II’s refusal of plans for reforms in the spirit of enlightened absolutism; reorganization of the local government system; liquidation of Cossack self-government on the Don, abolition of the Zaporozhye Sich; great economic damage. At the same time, the Pugachev era clearly showed that serfdom was becoming obsolete and was becoming the cause of dangerous social discontent.

Lesson summary on Russian history in 7th grade.

Lesson topic: The role of the militia in the events of the Time of Troubles.

Lesson type: Combined.

Goals:

-Educational: trace the process of formation of militias in Russia during the period of unrest. Find out the goals of the militia participants and the outcome of their actions. Assess the role of the leaders of the militias and their contribution to the liberation of the state from the Polish-Lithuanian invaders of 1611–1612; focus students' attention on the role of the people in fate Russia XVII century.

-Developmental: teach comparative analysis of facts and phenomena with the establishment of their relationship; determining cause-and-effect relationships, drawing conclusions based on the results of the analysis; translation of information from audiovisual series into tables, text, etc.

Develop analytical thinking, speech, the ability to work with text, generalize, and draw conclusions.

-Educational: to cultivate patriotic feelings through revealing the decisive role of the masses in the fight against intervention and in the liberation of the country, using the examples of K. Minin, D. Pozharsky and I. Susanin.

Basic concepts: people's militia, patriot, patriotism, Zemsky Sobor.

Names: P.P. Lyapunov, D.T. Trubetskoy, I.M. Zarutsky, K. Minin, D. Pozharsky and I. Susanin.

Lesson equipment: multimedia video projector, textbook A.A. Danilov, L.G. Kosulina “History of Russia at the end of the 16th - 18th centuries”, handouts.

Lesson plan:

I. Organizational moment.

II. Statement of the topic, problem of the lesson and its goals and objectives.

III. Learning new material.

Updating knowledge on the material covered.

The militia is the people's army.

Formation of the I and II people's militia. Comparative analysis their activities.

The result and significance of the militia’s activities.

IV. Consolidation of the studied material.

V. Lesson summary.

During the classes.

I. Organizing time.

Teacher: Hello guys! Sit down. My name is Yulia Vladimirovna.

At the beginning of the lesson I will tell you how we will work today. Please note that each of you has a worksheet on your desk in which you will work during today's lesson and a lesson plan that will help you if you have listened to the task or are a little behind all the guys. In addition, you will need textbooks and a blue and red pen. Today, each of you will be able to get a grade for the lesson, receiving points for correct execution tasks that you will set for yourself in the squares that are located next to the tasks. Please sign your worksheets.

II. Statement of the topic, problem of the lesson and its goals and objectives.

Teacher: Today in the lesson we will talk about the events of the late 16th - early 17th centuries, this period went down in history under the name Time of Troubles - this is a fairly long period of time, which you already talked about in history lessons, so today we will study in more detail one of the questions, relating to this period.

What is the topic of the lesson?

Want to know about it?

Then try quickly

Solve this test.

To find out the topic of today's lesson you have to complete test task No. 1 in your worksheets. If you complete the task correctly, you will get words from which you will make up the topic of the lesson.

Students solve the test in the multiple choice worksheets. As a result, each option gets its own word.

If the task is completed correctly, the student puts 1 point on the evaluation sheet.

Option 1 - ROLE

Option 2 - TROUBLES

Option 3 - MILITARY

Teacher: Who can formulate the topic of the lesson from these words?

Lesson topic: The role of the People's Militia in the events of the Time of Troubles.

Task: compare the activities of the 1st and 2nd people's militia and answer the question:

- Why I II

III. Studying the topic of the lesson.

1.Updating knowledge on the material covered.

Teacher: The Time of Troubles or “hard times” are turning points in the history of Russia, since then its fate and its future were decided. This is a time of difficult trials that befell our people. Let's find out what difficult trials our ancestors had to overcome during this period.

Guys, please read the text of the textbook on page 12 and using the reference data in task No. 2 words give a detailed answer to the question:

- Why is the beginning of the 17th century called difficult years, that is, “hard times” or the Troubles?

Student answers.

Teacher: In 1598, Tsar Fyodor Ivanovich died without leaving an heir. With his death, the ruling Rurik dynasty ended. The royal crown changed hands several times over the course of 15 years. Let's remember who headed our state during this difficult period.

To do this you need to do task #3: You cannot use textbooks to correlate the name of the ruler and the date of his reign.

Checking task No. 3. Assigning points.

2. Militia - the people's army.

Teacher: In August 1610, the “Seven Boyars” agreed with Hetman Zholkiewski to invite the son of the Polish king, Prince Vladislav, to the Russian throne with his obligatory adoption of Orthodoxy. The boyars secretly allowed the Poles into Moscow.

Question to the class:

- What could this fact mean?

Sample answer: Loss of nationality, subordination to the Poles, Catholicism.

Teacher: It seemed that the end of the Russian state had come. There was no supreme power, no strong army, no common treasury - there was nothing. But the people remained with their ineradicable will to defend the Fatherland. The Russians, who realized that their homeland was in danger, rose to its defense. Such people are called “patriots”.

- What is patriotism?

Sample answer: Patriotism is a civic feeling of love and devotion to the Motherland, awareness of one’s duty to it.

Teacher: Patriots began to form militias.

Questions for the class:

- What is a militia?

-When and where the militias participated in historical events?

Sample answer: Militia is an army temporarily recruited from the civilian population. The princely squads were sufficient only for small campaigns. But when attacked by huge hordes of the enemy, the squad was only the fighting core of the army, while the main force was made up of peasants and artisans who stood up to defend their land.

In the Battle of the Ice in 1242, Novgorod merchants, fishermen, and lumberjacks crushed the iron-clad German conquering knights. As military affairs developed, the militia was increasingly assigned a auxiliary role. Perhaps the last battle in which the foot militia acted as the main force was the Battle of Kulikovo in 1380. Usually, the “road army” was engaged in the construction of fortifications, transporting military cargo, and only at certain moments took part in battles, as was the case during the capture of Kazan. In the Patriotic War of 1812, in the Second World War.

3. FormationIAndIIpeople's militia. Comparative analysis of their activities.

Teacher: The first detachments of the people's militia during the period of unrest appeared back in 1608, but they were created spontaneously and acted separately, and only in the spring of 1611 did the First People's Militia begin to form.

Guys, now you will watch a video about the formation of the First Militia. As you watch, you need to fill out the table that is on your worksheets.

Watch the video and fill out the table based on the material you watched.

First militia Table No. 1

Teacher: Having failed to achieve its goals, the militia disintegrated. The situation in the country worsened: Polish and Swedish troops occupied a number of cities of the Russian state.

Let's look at the map and see which cities were captured by the interventionists.

Working with the map.

- The blue arrows show the cities captured by the Swedes, name them:

Answers: Korela, Vyborg, Ladoga, Novgorod, Pskov .

-Black arrows show cities captured by Polish-Lithuanian troops, name them.

Answers: Smolensk, Vyazma, Mozhaisk, approached Moscow (the capital of our Motherland)

Teacher: Russia was threatened with the loss of national independence. During this difficult period, the Second Militia was created in the Russian land, led by Prince Dmitry Pozharsky and the zemstvo elder Kuzma Minin.

In the fall of 1611, the zemstvo elder Kuzma Minin appealed to his people to help with all their might to gather a militia. K. Minin himself donated one third of his fortune for the benefit of the Motherland.

Now you need to fill out a similar table for the activities of the II Militia using the textbook text on pp. 27-28.

Filling out the table.

Second militia Table No. 2

Teacher: Let's trace the movement of the II Militia troops.

Fill out the diagram: Movement of troops of the II People's Militia.

Using the map on page 25 and the textbook text on pages 28-29, insert

missing words.

Movement of troops of the Second People's Militia.

March 1612 - appearance of militia troops from Nizhny Novgorod

We moved to the city of Yaroslavl, then Rostov

July 1612 approached Moscow

The People's Militia troops led by the Poles

Hetman Khodkevich

Defeat of the Polish-Lithuanian troops

Result: Moscow, the heart of all of Russia, was liberated through the efforts of the people, who, in a difficult time for Russia, showed restraint, perseverance, courage, and saved the entire country from a national catastrophe.

Teacher: The liberation of Moscow caused a powerful patriotic upsurge in the nationwide struggle against the interventionists remaining in the territory. The feat of the Kostroma peasant Ivan Susanin is well known.

A student's story about the feat of I. Susanin.

4. The result and significance of the militia’s activities.

Draw a conclusion:

- What is the role of the people’s militia in the events of the Time of Troubles?

Student answers.

Teacher's addition: Russian Orthodox Church established the celebration of the icon in honor of the liberation of Moscow and Russia from the Poles in 1612 Mother of God. (The story is accompanied by showing a reproduction of the icon).

The feat of Kuzma Minin, Dmitry Pozharsky and the militia they led will forever go down in Russian history as an example of selfless and selfless service to the Fatherland. In memory and edification of the descendants of Minin and Pozharsky, a monument was erected in Moscow on Red Square. An exact copy of this monument was unveiled on November 4, 2005 in Nizhny Novgorod, the city where the militia that saved the country was created.

November 4, 2005, since this day was declared a national holiday by the Russian government and Russian President V.V. Putin Unity and Harmony. This holiday of national unity is dedicated to the revival of the historical memory of our people and the restoration of shrines.

A people who does not remember the past has no future

IV. Consolidation of the studied material.

Now let’s return to the question that was asked at the beginning of the lesson.

- Why I the militia failed, and II did the militia achieve its goals?

Let's try to answer the question by filling out the table given in task No. 7. You are given the reasons for the failure of the 1st militia and the reasons for the victory of the 2nd militia.

Organize these reasons into the appropriate columns, but be careful because... Not all of the proposed reasons are correct.

IV. Lesson summary.

Assigning points for work in the lesson according to specified criteria.

Grading is based on the number of points scored.

Reflection.

Express your attitude to the lesson by finishing the phrase, the beginning of which I will offer you:

“In class I learned that...”;

“I liked the lesson...”;

“It was new for me...”;

“I see the benefit of...”

I am pleased with our lesson, its results and received satisfaction from our joint work.

First militia

The third stage of the Troubles is associated with the desire to overcome the conciliatory position of the Seven Boyars, which had no real power and was unable to force Vladislav to fulfill the terms of the agreement and accept Orthodoxy. Opponents of the current state of affairs were becoming increasingly widespread among the population. In order to stop the unrest, in October 1610, Gonsevsky arrested a number of representatives of prominent boyar families. On November 30, Patriarch Hermogenes made a call to fight the interventionists, who was also placed under strict arrest. Moscow found itself in virtual martial law.

The idea of ​​a national militia to liberate Moscow from the interventionists has matured in the country. In February-March 1611, the 1st Militia of Lyapunov and Prince Trubetskoy, as well as the Cossacks of Ataman Zarutsky, approached the walls of Moscow. The decisive battle, in which Muscovites and one of the militia governors, Prince Dmitry Mikhailovich Pozharsky, took part, took place on March 19. However, they failed to liberate the city: on the advice of Dmitry Molchanov, the Poles set the city on fire and thereby stopped the uprising of Muscovites. Nevertheless, areas of the White City remained in the hands of the militia, and the Poles, who controlled only the Kremlin and Kitai-Gorod, found themselves isolated. But even in the militia camp there were internal contradictions, which resulted in armed clashes, in one of which, on July 22, 1611, Prokopiy Lyapunov was killed by the Cossacks, and the militia began to fall apart.

Same year Crimean Tatars, without meeting resistance, they ravage the Ryazan region. After a long siege, Smolensk was captured by the Poles, and the Swedes, emerging from the role of “allies,” ravaged the northern Russian cities.

Second militia

The Second Militia of 1612 was led by the Nizhny Novgorod zemstvo elder Kuzma Minin, who invited Prince Pozharsky to lead military operations. An important thing that Pozharsky and Minin were able to accomplish was the organization and unity of all patriotic forces. In February 1612, the militia moved to Yaroslavl to occupy this important point, where many roads crossed. Yaroslavl was busy; The militia stood here for four months, because it was necessary to “build” not only the army, but also the “land.” Pozharsky wanted to gather a “general zemstvo council” to discuss plans to combat the Polish-Lithuanian intervention and “how can we not be stateless in this evil time and choose a sovereign for us with the whole earth.” The candidacy of the Swedish prince Karl Philip was also proposed for discussion, who “wants to be baptized into our Orthodox faith Greek law." However, the zemstvo council did not take place.

Meanwhile, the first militia completely disintegrated. Ivan Zarutsky and his supporters went to Kolomna, and from there to Astrakhan. Following them, several hundred more Cossacks left, but the bulk of them, led by Prince Trubetskoy, remained to hold the siege of Moscow.

In August 1612, the militia of Minin and Pozharsky entered Moscow and united with the remnants of the first militia. On August 22, Hetman Khodkevich tried to break through to the aid of his besieged compatriots, but after three days of fighting he was forced to retreat with heavy losses.

On September 22, 1612, one of the bloodiest events of the Time of Troubles took place - the city of Vologda was taken by the Poles and Cherkasy (Cossacks), who destroyed almost its entire population, including the monks of the Spaso-Prilutsky Monastery.

On October 22, 1612, the militia led by Kuzma Minin and Dmitry Pozharsky took Kitay-Gorod by storm; The garrison of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth retreated to the Kremlin. Prince Pozharsky entered Kitai-Gorod with Kazan icon Mother of God and vowed to build a temple in memory of this victory.

The Poles held out in the Kremlin for another month; in order to get rid of extra mouths, they ordered the boyars and all Russian people to send their wives out of the Kremlin. The boyars were very upset and sent Minin to Pozharsky and all the military men with a request to please accept their wives without shame. Pozharsky ordered them to tell them to let their wives out without fear, and he himself went to receive them, received everyone honestly and escorted each one to his friend, ordering everyone to please them.

Driven to extremes by hunger, the Poles finally entered into negotiations with the militia, demanding only one thing, that their lives be saved, which was promised. First, the boyars were released - Fyodor Ivanovich Mstislavsky, Ivan Mikhailovich Vorotynsky, Ivan Nikitich Romanov with his nephew Mikhail Fedorovich and the latter’s mother Marfa Ivanovna and all other Russian people. When the Cossacks saw that the boyars had gathered on the Stone Bridge, which led from the Kremlin through Neglinnaya, they wanted to rush at them, but were restrained by Pozharsky’s militia and forced to return to the camps, after which the boyars were received with great honor. The next day the Poles also surrendered: Coward and his regiment fell to Trubetskoy’s Cossacks, who robbed and beat many prisoners; Budzilo and his regiment were taken to Pozharsky’s warriors, who did not touch a single Pole. Coward was interrogated, Andronov was tortured, how many royal treasures were lost, how many remained? They also found ancient royal hats, which were given as pawn to the Sapezhin residents who remained in the Kremlin. On November 27, Trubetskoy’s militia converged on the Church of the Kazan Mother of God outside the Intercession Gate, Pozharsky’s militia converged on the Church of St. John the Merciful on Arbat and, taking crosses and icons, moved to Kitay-Gorod from two different sides, accompanied by all Moscow residents; The militias converged at the Execution Place, where the Trinity Archimandrite Dionysius began to serve a prayer service, and now from the Frolovsky (Spassky) gates, from the Kremlin, another procession of the cross appeared: the Galasun (Arkhangelsk) Archbishop Arseny was walking with the Kremlin clergy and carried the Vladimirskaya: screams and sobs were heard in a people who had already lost hope of ever seeing this image dear to Muscovites and all Russians. After the prayer service, the army and people moved to the Kremlin, and here joy gave way to sadness when they saw the state in which the embittered infidels left the churches: uncleanness everywhere, images were cut, eyes were turned out, thrones were torn; terrible food is prepared in the vats - human corpses! The mass and prayer service in the Assumption Cathedral ended a great national celebration similar to which our fathers saw exactly two centuries later.”

Prerequisites for the creation of the second militia

The initiative to organize the Second People's Militia came from the crafts and trade people of Nizhny Novgorod, an important economic and administrative center in the Middle Volga. At that time, about 150 thousand male people lived in the Nizhny Novgorod district, there were up to 30 thousand households in 600 villages. In Nizhny itself there were about 3.5 thousand male residents, of which about 2.0–2.5 thousand were townspeople.

Disastrous situation in the Nizhny Novgorod region

Nizhny Novgorod in its strategic position, economic and political significance was one of the key points in the eastern and southeastern regions of Russia. In conditions of weakening of the central government and the rule of the interventionists, this city became the initiator of a nationwide patriotic movement that swept the Upper and Middle Volga regions and neighboring regions of the country. It should be noted that Nizhny Novgorod residents joined the liberation struggle several years before the formation of the second militia.

Collapse of the First Militia

The rise of the national liberation movement in 1611 resulted in the creation of the first people's militia, its actions and the March uprising of Muscovites, led by the Zaraisk governor, Prince Dmitry Mikhailovich Pozharsky. The failure of the first militia did not weaken this rise, but, on the contrary, strengthened it. Many of the first militias already had experience fighting the invaders. Residents of cities, counties and volosts who did not submit to impostors and invaders also had this experience. And it is no coincidence, in connection with the above, that Nizhny Novgorod becomes the stronghold of the further national liberation struggle of the Russian people for their independence and the outpost for the creation of a second people's militia.

In the summer of 1611, confusion reigned in the country. In Moscow, all affairs were managed by the Poles, and the boyars - rulers from the “Seven Boyars”, sent letters to cities, counties and volosts calling for an oath to the Polish prince Vladislav. Patriarch Hermogenes, while imprisoned, advocated the unification of the country's liberation forces, punishing not to obey the orders of the military leaders of the Cossack regiments near Moscow, Prince D. T. Trubetskoy and Ataman I. M. Zarutsky. Archimandrite Dionysius of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, on the contrary, called on everyone to unite around Trubetskoy and Zarutsky. It was at this time that a new upsurge of the patriotic movement arose in Nizhny Novgorod, which already had its own tradition and again found support among the townspeople and service people and the local peasantry. A powerful impulse to this popular movement served as a charter from Patriarch Hermogenes, received by the people of Nizhny Novgorod on August 25, 1611. The undaunted elder from the dungeon of the Chudov Monastery called on the people of Nizhny Novgorod to stand up for the holy cause of liberating Rus' from foreign invaders.

The role of Kuzma Minin in organizing the second militia

An outstanding role in organizing this movement was played by the Nizhny Novgorod zemstvo elder Kuzma Minin, who was elected to this position in early September 1611. According to historians, Minin first began his famous calls for the liberation struggle among the townspeople, who warmly supported him. Then he was supported by the Nizhny Novgorod city council, voivodes, clergy and service people. By decision of the city council, a general meeting of Nizhny Novgorod residents was appointed. Residents of the city gathered in the Kremlin, in the Transfiguration Cathedral, at the sound of bells. First, a service took place, after which Archpriest Savva gave a sermon, and then Minin addressed the people with an appeal to stand up for the liberation of the Russian state from foreign enemies. Not limiting themselves to voluntary contributions, the residents of Nizhny Novgorod accepted the “sentence” of the entire city that all residents of the city and county “for the formation of military people” must give part of their property. Minin was entrusted with managing the collection of funds and their distribution among the warriors of the future militia.

Military leader of the second militia, Prince Pozharsky

“Elected person” Kuzma Minin in his appeal raised the question of choosing a military leader for the future militia. At the next gathering, Nizhny Novgorod residents decided to ask Prince Pozharsky to head the people's militia, whose family estate was located in the Nizhny Novgorod district, 60 km from Nizhny Novgorod to the west, where he was recovering from his wounds after being seriously wounded on March 20, 1611 in Moscow. The prince, in all his qualities, was suitable for the role of militia commander. He was of a noble family - Rurikovich in the twentieth generation. In 1608, as a regimental commander, he defeated the gatherings of the Tushino impostor near Kolomna; in 1609 he defeated the gangs of Ataman Salkov; in 1610, during the dissatisfaction of the Ryazan governor Prokopiy Lyapunov with Tsar Shuisky, he kept the city of Zaraysk in allegiance to the tsar; in March 1611 he valiantly fought the enemies of the Fatherland in Moscow and was seriously wounded. The residents of Nizhny Novgorod were also impressed by such traits of the prince as honesty, selflessness, fairness in making decisions, decisiveness, balance and thoughtfulness in his actions. Nizhny Novgorod residents went to him “many times so that I could go to Nizhny for the Zemstvo Council,” as the prince himself said. According to the etiquette of that time, Pozharsky refused the offer of the Nizhny Novgorod residents for a long time. And only when a delegation from Nizhny Novgorod, headed by Archimandrite Theodosius of the Ascension-Pechersk Monastery, came to him, did Pozharsky agree to lead the militia, but with one condition: that all economic affairs in the militia be managed by Minin, who, by the “sentence” of the Nizhny Novgorod residents, was awarded the title “ elected person by the whole earth."

Beginning of the organization of the second militia

Pozharsky arrived in Nizhny Novgorod on October 28, 1611 and immediately, together with Minin, began organizing a militia. In the Nizhny Novgorod garrison there were about 750 soldiers. Then they invited from Arzamas service people from Smolensk, who were expelled from Smolensk after it was occupied by the Poles. The Vyazmich and Dorogobuzh residents found themselves in a similar situation, and they also joined the militia. The militia immediately grew to three thousand people. All militiamen received good pay: servicemen of the first article were assigned a salary of 50 rubles per year, the second article - 45 rubles, the third - 40 rubles, but there was no salary less than 30 rubles per year. The presence of a constant monetary allowance among the militia attracted new servicemen from all surrounding regions to the militia. People from Kolomna, Ryazan, Cossacks and Streltsy came from Ukrainian cities, etc.

Good organization, especially the collection and distribution of funds, the establishment of its own office, establishing connections with many cities and regions, involving them in the affairs of the militia - all this led to the fact that, unlike the First Militia, the unity of goals and actions was established in the Second from the very beginning. Pozharsky and Minin continued to collect the treasury and warriors, turn to different cities for help, sent them letters with appeals: “... let us all, Orthodox Christians, be in love and in unity and not begin the previous civil strife, and the Moscow state from our enemies ... cleanse unremittingly until your death, and do not inflict robberies and taxes on Orthodox Christianity, and do not plunder the entire land of the Moscow State with your arbitrariness without the advice of the sovereign” (letter from Nizhny Novgorod to Vologda and Sol Vychegda in early December 1611). The authorities of the Second Militia actually began to carry out the functions of a government that opposed the Moscow “Seven Boyars” and the Moscow region “camps” independent of the authorities, led by D. T. Trubetskoy and I. I. Zarutsky. The militia government initially formed during the winter of 1611-1612. as "Council of all the earth." It included the leaders of the militia, members of the Nizhny Novgorod city council, and representatives of other cities. It finally took shape when the second militia was in Yaroslavl and after the “cleansing” of Moscow from the Poles.

The government of the Second Militia had to act in a difficult situation. Not only the interventionists and their henchmen looked at him with fear, but also the Moscow “Seven Boyars” and the leaders of the Cossack freemen, Zarutsky and Trubetskoy. All of them created various obstacles for Pozharsky and Minin. But they, in spite of everything, strengthened their position with their organized work. Relying on all layers of society, especially on the district nobility and townspeople, they restored order in the cities and districts of the north and northeast, receiving in return new militias and the treasury. The detachments of princes D.P. Lopata-Pozharsky and R.P. Pozharsky, sent by him in a timely manner, occupied Yaroslavl and Suzdal, preventing the detachments of the Prosovetsky brothers from entering there.

March of the second militia

The second militia set out for Moscow from Nizhny Novgorod at the end of February - beginning of March 1612 through Balakhna, Timonkino, Sitskoye, Yuryevets, Reshma, Kineshma, Kostroma, Yaroslavl. In Balakhna and Yuryevets, the militias were greeted with great honor. They received replenishment and a large cash treasury. In Reshma, Pozharsky learned about the oath of Pskov and the Cossack leaders Trubetskoy and Zarutsky to the new impostor, the fugitive monk Isidore. Kostroma governor I.P. Sheremetev did not want to let the militia into the city. Having removed Sheremetev and appointed a new governor in Kostroma, the militia entered Yaroslavl in early April 1612. Here the militia stood for four months, until the end of July 1612. In Yaroslavl, the composition of the government - the “Council of the Whole Earth” - was finally determined. It also included representatives of noble princely families - the Dolgorukys, Kurakins, Buturlins, Sheremetevs and others. The Council was headed by Pozharsky and Minin. Since Minin was illiterate, Pozharsky signed the letters instead: “Prince Dmitry Pozharsky put his hand in Minin’s place as an elected person with all the land in Kozmino.” The certificates were signed by all members of the “Council of the Whole Earth”. And since at that time “localism” was strictly observed, Pozharsky’s signature was in tenth place, and Minin’s in fifteenth.

In Yaroslavl, the militia government continued to pacify cities and counties, liberating them from Polish-Lithuanian detachments and from Zarutsky’s Cossacks, depriving the latter of material and military assistance from the eastern, northeastern and northern regions. At the same time, it took diplomatic steps to neutralize Sweden, which had captured Novgorod lands, through negotiations on the candidacy for the Russian throne of Karl Philip, brother of the Swedish king Gustav Adolf. At the same time, Prince Pozharsky held diplomatic negotiations with Joseph Gregory, the ambassador of the German emperor, about the emperor’s assistance to the militia in the liberation of the country. In return, he offered Pozharsky the emperor’s cousin, Maximilian, as Russian tsar. These two claimants to the Russian throne were subsequently rejected. The “stand” in Yaroslavl and the measures taken by the “Council of the Whole Earth”, Minin and Pozharsky themselves, yielded results. A large number of lower and Moscow region towns with counties, Pomorie and Siberia joined the Second Militia. Government institutions functioned: under the “Council of the Whole Land” there were the Local, Razryadny, and Ambassadorial orders. Order was gradually established over an increasingly large territory of the state. Gradually, with the help of militia detachments, it was cleared of gangs of thieves. The militia army already numbered up to ten thousand warriors, well armed and trained. The militia authorities were also involved in everyday administrative and judicial work (appointing governors, maintaining discharge books, analyzing complaints, petitions, etc.). All this gradually stabilized the situation in the country and led to a revival of economic activity.

At the beginning of the month, the militia received news of the advance of Hetman Khodkevich’s twelve thousand-strong detachment with a large convoy towards Moscow. Pozharsky and Minin immediately sent detachments of M.S. Dmitriev and Lopata-Pozharsky to the capital, which approached Moscow on July 24 and August 2, respectively. Having learned about the arrival of the militia, Zarutsky and his Cossack detachment fled to Kolomna, and then to Astrakhan, since before that he had sent assassins to Prince Pozharsky, but the assassination attempt failed, and Zarutsky’s plans were revealed.

Speech from Yaroslavl

The second people's militia set out from Yaroslavl to Moscow on July 28, 1612. The first stop was six or seven miles from the city. The second, July 29, 26 versts from Yaroslavl on Sheputsky-Yam, from where the militia army went further to Rostov the Great with Prince I.A. Khovansky and Kozma Minin, and Pozharsky himself with a small detachment went to the Suzdal Spaso-Evfimiev Monastery, - “ to pray and bow to my parents’ coffins.” Having caught up with the army in Rostov, Pozharsky stopped for several days to gather warriors who had arrived in the militia from different cities. On August 14, the militia arrived at the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, where they were joyfully greeted by the clergy. On August 18, after listening to a prayer service, the militia moved from the Trinity-Sergius Monastery to Moscow, less than five miles away, and spent the night on the Yauza River. The next day, August 19, Prince D.T. Trubetskoy with a Cossack regiment met Prince Pozharsky at the walls of Moscow and began to call him to camp with him at the Yauz Gate. Pozharsky did not accept his invitation, as he feared hostility from the Cossacks towards the militia, and stood with his militia at the Arbat Gate, from where they expected an attack from Hetman Khodkevich. On August 20, Khodkevich was already on Poklonnaya Hill. Along with him came detachments of Hungarians and Hetman Nalivaiko with the Little Russian Cossacks.

Fight of militias with the troops of Hetman Khodkevich

Cleansing of Moscow

However, not all of Moscow was liberated from the invaders. There were still Polish detachments of Colonels Strus and Budila, entrenched in Kitay-Gorod and the Kremlin. The traitorous boyars and their families also took refuge in the Kremlin. The future Russian sovereign Mikhail Romanov, who was still little known at that time, was in the Kremlin with his mother, nun Marfa Ivanovna. Knowing that the besieged Poles were suffering terrible hunger, Pozharsky at the end of September 1612 sent them a letter in which he invited the Polish knighthood to surrender. “Your heads and lives will be spared,” he wrote, “I will take this on my soul and ask all military men to agree to this.” To which an arrogant and boastful response followed from the Polish colonels with a refusal to Pozharsky’s proposal.

On October 22, 1612, Kitay-Gorod was taken by attack by Russian troops, but there were still Poles who had settled in the Kremlin. The hunger there intensified to such an extent that the boyar families and all civilian inhabitants began to be escorted out of the Kremlin, and the Poles themselves went so far as to start eating human flesh. Pozharsky and his regiment stood on the Stone Bridge at the Trinity Gate of the Kremlin to meet the boyar families and protect them from the Cossacks. On October 26, the Poles surrendered and left the Kremlin. Budilo and his regiment fell into Pozharsky’s camp, and everyone remained alive. Later they were sent to Nizhny Novgorod. Coward and his regiment fell to Trubetskoy, and the Cossacks exterminated all the Poles. On October 27, the ceremonial entry into the Kremlin of the troops of princes Pozharsky and Trubetskoy was scheduled. When the troops gathered at Lobnoye Mesto, Archimandrite Dionysius of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery performed a solemn prayer service in honor of the victory of the militia. After which, to the ringing of bells, the winners, accompanied by the people, entered the Kremlin with banners and banners.

Thus the cleansing of Moscow and the Moscow state from foreign invaders was completed.

Historiography

The Nizhny Novgorod militia has traditionally been an important element of Russian historiography. One of the most thorough studies is the work of P. G. Lyubomirov. The only work that describes in detail the initial period of the struggle of the Nizhny Novgorod people (1608-1609) is the fundamental work of S. F. Platonov on the history of the Time of Troubles.

In fiction

The events of 1611-1612 are described in the popular historical novel by M. N. Zagoskin Yuri Miloslavsky, or Russians in 1612.

Notes

Sources

• Chronicle of many rebellions. Second edition. - M.: 1788.
• Zabelin I. E. Minin and Pozharsky. Straight lines and curves in the Time of Troubles. - M.: 1883.
• Russian Biographical Dictionary: In 25 volumes / under the supervision of A. A. Polovtsov. 1896-1918. Korsakova V. I. Pozharsky, book. Dmitry Mikhailovich. - St. Petersburg: 1905. P.221-247.
• Bibikov G. N. The battles of the Russian people's militia with the Polish invaders on August 22-24, 1612 near Moscow. Historical note. - M.: 1950. T.32.
• Buganov V.I.“The elected man of the whole earth” Kuzma Minin. Questions of history. - M.: 1980. No. 9. P.90-102.