Characteristics of the Novgorod land table. Novgorod land

PRINCIPALITY OF NOVGOROD

The territory of the Novgorod principality increased gradually. The Novgorod principality began with the ancient region of Slavic settlement. It was located in the basin of Lake Ilmen, as well as the rivers Volkhov, Lovat, Msta and Mologa. From the north, the Novgorod land was covered by the fortress-city of Ladoga, located at the mouth of the Volkhov. Over time, the territory of the Novgorod principality increased. The principality even had its own colonies.

Novgorod Principality in the XII – XIII centuries in the north it owned lands along Lake Onega, the Lake Ladoga basin and the northern shores of the Gulf of Finland. The outpost of the Novgorod principality in the west was the city of Yuryev (Tartu), which was founded by Yaroslav the Wise. This was Peipus land. The Novgorod principality expanded very quickly to the north and east (northeast). So, the lands that extended to the Urals and even beyond the Urals went to the Novgorod principality.

Novgorod itself occupied a territory that had five ends (districts). The entire territory of the Novgorod principality was divided into five regions in accordance with the five districts of the city. These areas were also called Pyatina. Thus, to the north-west of Novgorod was the Vodskaya Pyatina. It spread towards the Gulf of Finland and covered the lands of the Finnish Vod tribe. The Shelon Pyatina spread to the southwest on both sides of the Shelon River. Derevskaya Pyatina was located between the Msta and Lovat rivers, southeast of Novgorod. On both sides Lake Onega Obonezhskaya Pyatina was located to the northeast towards the White Sea. Behind the Derevskaya and Obonezhskaya Pyatina, to the southeast was the Bezhetskaya Pyatina.

In addition to the indicated five pyatinas, the Novgorod principality included Novgorod volosts. One of them was the Dvina land (Zavolochye), which was located in the Northern Dvina region. Another volost of the Novgorod principality was the Perm land, which was located along the course of the Vychegda, as well as along its tributaries. The Principality of Novgorod included the land on both sides of Pechora. This was the Pechora region. Yugra was located east of the Northern Urals. Within the Onega and Ladoga lakes there was the land of Korela, which was also part of the Novgorod principality. The Kola Peninsula (Tersky Coast) was also part of the Novgorod Principality.

The basis of the Novgorod economy was agriculture. The land and the peasants working on it provided the main income to landowners. These were the boyars and, of course, the Orthodox clergy. Among the large landowners there were also merchants.

On the lands of the Novgorod Pyatins, the arable system prevailed. In the extreme northern regions, cutting was maintained. The lands at these latitudes cannot be called fertile. For this reason, part of the grain was imported from other Russian lands, most often from the Ryazan principality and the Rostov-Suzdal land. The problem of providing bread was especially pressing in lean years, which were not uncommon here.

It was not only the land that fed us. The population was engaged in hunting for fur and sea animals, fishing, beekeeping, salt mining in Staraya Russa and Vychegda, and iron ore mining in Vodskaya Pyatina. Trade and crafts were widely developed in Novgorod. Carpenters, potters, blacksmiths, gunsmiths, shoemakers, tanners, felt makers, bridge workers and other craftsmen worked there. Novgorod carpenters were even sent to Kyiv, where they carried out very important orders.

Trade routes from Northern Europe to the Black Sea basin, as well as from Western countries to Eastern European countries, passed through Novgorod. In the 10th century, Novgorod merchants sailed on their ships along the route “from the Varangians to the Greeks.” At the same time, they reached the shores of Byzantium. The Novgorod state had very close trade and economic ties with European states. Among them was the large trading center of Northwestern Europe, Gotland. In Novgorod there was a whole trading colony - the Gothic court.
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It was surrounded by a high wall, behind which there were barns and houses with foreign merchants living in them.

In the second half of the 12th century, trade ties between Novgorod and the union of North German cities (Hansa) strengthened. All measures were taken to ensure that foreign merchants felt completely safe. Another merchant colony and a new German trading court were built.
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The life of trading colonies was regulated by a special charter (ʼʼSkraʼʼ).

Novgorodians supplied linen, hemp, flax, lard, wax, and the like to the market. Metals, cloth, weapons and other goods came to Novgorod from abroad. Goods passed through Novgorod from Western countries to Eastern countries and in the opposite direction. Novgorod acted as an intermediary in such trade. Goods from the East were delivered to Novgorod along the Volga, from where they were sent to Western countries.

Trade within the vast Novgorod Republic developed successfully. Novgorodians also traded with the principalities of North-Eastern Rus', where Novgorod purchased primarily grain. Novgorod merchants were united into societies (like guilds). The most powerful was the trading company “Ivanovo Sto”. Members of society had great privileges. From among its members, the trading society again chose elders according to the number of districts of the city. Each elder, together with the thousand, was in charge of everyone commercial affairs, as well as a commercial court in Novgorod. The trade leader established weight measures, length measures, etc., and monitored compliance with accepted and legalized rules of trade. The ruling class in the Novgorod Republic were large landowners - boyars, clergy, merchants. Some of them owned lands that stretched for hundreds of miles. For example, the boyar family Boretsky owned lands that extended over vast territories along the Northern Dvina and the White Sea. Merchants who owned significant lands were called “living people”. Landowners received their main income in the form of quitrents. The landowner's own farm was not very large. Slaves worked on it.

In the city, large landowners shared power with the merchant elite. Together they formed the city patriciate and controlled the economic and political life of Novgorod.

Established in Novgorod political system was unique. Initially, Kyiv sent governor-princes to Novgorod, who were subordinate to the Grand Duke of Kyiv and acted in accordance with instructions from Kyiv. The prince-governor appointed mayors and mayors. At the same time, over time, the boyars and large landowners increasingly evaded subordination to the prince. So, in 1136 this resulted in a rebellion against Prince Vsevolod. The chronicle says that “Prince Vsevolod rode into the bishop’s courtyard with his wife and children, his mother-in-law, and the guard, guarding the guard day and night 30, the husband a day with weapons.” It ended with Prince Vsevolod being exiled to Pskov. And in Novgorod a people's assembly was formed - the veche.

The mayor or tysyatsky announced the gathering of the people's assembly on the trading side of the Yaroslavl courtyard. Everyone was summoned by the ringing of the veche bell. In addition, Birgochs and Podveiskys were sent to different parts of the city, who invited (clicked) the people to the veche gathering. Only men participated in decision making. Any free person (male) could take part in the work of the veche.

The powers of the veche were broad and significant. The veche elected a mayor, a thousand (previously they were appointed by the prince), a bishop, declared war, made peace, discussed and approved legislative acts, tried mayors, thousand, and sotskys for crimes, and concluded treaties with foreign powers. The veche invited the prince to the board. It also “showed him the way” when he did not live up to his hopes.

The Veche was the legislative power in the Novgorod Republic. The decisions made at the meeting had to be implemented. This was the responsibility of the executive branch. The heads of the executive power were the mayor and the thousand. The mayor was elected at the assembly. His term of office was not determined in advance. But the veche could recall him at any time. The posadnik was the highest official in the republic. He controlled the activities of the prince, ensuring that the activities of the Novgorod authorities corresponded to the decisions of the veche. In the hands of the townsman was Supreme Court republics. He had the right to remove and appoint officials. The prince headed the armed forces. The mayor went on a campaign as an assistant to the prince. In fact, the mayor headed not only the executive branch, but also the veche. He received foreign ambassadors. If the prince was absent, the armed forces were subordinate to the mayor. As for Tysyatsky, he was an assistant mayor. He commanded separate units during the war. In peacetime, the thousand was responsible for the state of trade affairs and the merchant court.

The clergy in Novgorod was headed by a bishop. Since 1165, the archbishop became the head of the Novgorod clergy. He was the largest of the Novgorod landowners. The ecclesiastical court was under the jurisdiction of the archbishop. The archbishop was a kind of minister of foreign affairs - he was in charge of relations between Novgorod and other countries.

However, after 1136, when Prince Vsevolod was expelled, the Novgorodians elected a prince for themselves at a veche. Most often he was invited to reign. But this reign was greatly limited. The prince did not even have the right to buy this or that plot of land with his own money. The mayor and his people watched all his actions. The duties and rights of the invited prince were stipulated in the agreement concluded between the veche and the prince. This agreement was called “nearby”. According to the agreement, the prince had no administrative power. In essence, he was supposed to act as commander-in-chief. However, he personally could not declare war or make peace.
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For his service, the prince was allocated funds for his “feeding”. In practice, it looked like this: the prince was allocated an area (volost) where he collected tribute, which was used for these purposes. Most often, the Novgorodians invited the Vladimir-Suzdal princes, who were considered the most powerful among the Russian princes, to reign. When the princes tried to break the established order, they received a worthy rebuff.
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The danger to the liberties of the Novgorod Republic from the Suzdal princes passed after the Suzdal troops suffered from Novgorod troops in 1216 complete defeat on the Lipica River. It can be assumed that from now on Novgorod land turned into a feudal boyar republic.

In the 14th century, Pskov split off from Novgorod. But in both cities the veche order lasted until they were annexed to the Moscow principality. There is no need to think that an idyll was realized in Novgorod, when power belongs to the people. There should be no democracy (power of the people) in principle. Now there is not a single country in the world that could say that power in it belongs to the people. Yes, people take part in elections. And this is where the power of the people ends. So it was then, in Novgorod. Real power was in the hands of the Novgorod elite. The cream of society created a council of gentlemen. It included former administrators (mayors and tysyatsky stars of the Novgorod districts-ends), as well as the current mayor and tysyatsky. The council of gentlemen was headed by the Novgorod archbishop. The council met in his chambers when matters needed to be resolved. At the meeting, ready-made decisions were made, which were developed by the council of gentlemen. Of course, there were cases when the veche did not agree with the decisions proposed by the council of gentlemen. But there were not many such cases.

PRINCIPALITY OF NOVGOROD - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "NOVGOROD PRINCIPALITY" 2017, 2018.

The respectful attitude towards Veliky Novgorod in Rus' was completely justified. In the 9th century it was the center of Russian cities and sought to surpass the capital Kyiv. No matter how much Kyiv sent its princes to Novgorod, they were never able to take root. Novgorod owes its exceptional status, first of all, to its favorable geographical location - the famous trade route “from the Varangians to the Greeks” ran through it, which contributed to the rapid development of trade and handicraft production.

Relationships with neighbors

Novgorod formed its own aristocracy. It consisted of representatives of the boyars and merchants, who had lands, forests, and fish storage facilities in their possessions, and having united with the church authorities, and having great support from the common people, they created a single powerful apparatus that resisted the pressure of Kiev, and constituted serious competition for Rostov and .

The Novgorod principality became so independent from Kyiv that it began to conduct independent political and economic activities with the Germans, Scandinavians and with its neighbors: Polotsk, Smolensk, Rostov-Suzdal principality. Even wars bypassed it; the city managed to avoid the raids of the Pechenegs, who barbarously plundered and ravaged the cities.

Internal contradictions

If in foreign policy the government and the people acted as a single force, then in domestic policy everything was not so smooth. Constant clashes of interests between the working people and the aristocracy resulted in riots and uprisings. There was no unity among the nobility; merchants and boyars constantly fought for wealth and redistribution of land, and every now and then they tried to install their own person as the head of the city. The same thing happened in the cities of the principality, such as Pskov and Ladoga. To show that Novgorod is no worse than Kyiv, the Novgorod Kremlin Palace and St. Sophia Cathedral were built on the Volkhov River, following the example of the Kyiv one.

The supreme power in Novgorod was the veche and the Council of Gentlemen. The veche was represented by people from the people and had the right to resolve all issues of the Novgorod Republic. Noble and influential people united in the Council of Gentlemen. Novgorod citizens had a great spirit of independence, and did not stand on ceremony either with the Kyiv authorities or with the local ones. So during the reign of Vsevolod (son), who began an internecine struggle with neighboring principalities to the detriment of the local population. The boyars, merchants and church united and overthrew the presumptuous ruler, took him into custody, and then expelled him from the city.

After these events in 1136, Novgorod became an aristocratic republic, led by the top of the boyars, merchants and the archbishop. The city council from time to time invited various princes to the military leadership, but as soon as they stopped organizing, they were immediately expelled. For many centuries, the Novgorod principality was one of the most powerful politically and economically thanks to a strong aristocracy that enjoyed the support of the people. But you shouldn’t think that the people in the Novgorod principality decided anything; there was never democracy in Rus', the people only took part in elections, and that’s where their role ended.

End of the Grand Duchy

In the 15th century, one of the significant cities of the Principality of Pskov separated from Novgorod. In 1478, he annexed Novgorod to the Moscow state, and Tsar Grozny finally destroyed all Novgorod independence.

• Surprisingly, historians to this day find the remains of various documents made of birch bark, proving that at that time writing and literacy were very developed in Novgorod both among the nobility and among the common people. Writing on sheets of birch bark of various nature, from love letters of ordinary townspeople to state letters of Novgorod princes.

By the middle of the 12th century, 15 small and large principalities were formed in Kievan Rus. By the beginning of the 13th century their number had increased to 50. The collapse of the state had not only a negative result (weakening before the invasion of the Tatar-Mongols), but also a positive result.

Rus' during the period of feudal fragmentation

In individual principalities and fiefdoms, rapid growth of cities began, and trade relations with the Baltic states and the Germans began to form and develop. Changes in local culture were also noticeable: chronicles were created, new buildings were erected, etc.

Large regions of the country

The state had several large principalities. These, in particular, can be considered Chernigovskoe, Kyiv, Severskoe. However, the largest were considered to be three in the southwest, and the Novgorod and Vladimir-Suzdal principalities in the northeast. These were the main political centers of the state at that time. It is worth noting that they all had their distinctive features. Next, let's talk about what were the features of the Novgorod principality.

General information

The origins from which the development of the Novgorod principality began are still not entirely clear. The oldest mention of the main city of the region dates back to the year 859. However, it is assumed that at that time the chroniclers did not use weather records (they appeared by the 10-11th century), but collected those legends that were most popular among the people. After Rus' adopted the Byzantine tradition of composing tales, authors had to compose stories, independently estimating dates, before weather records began. Of course, such dating is far from accurate, so it should not be completely trusted.

Principality of Novgorod Land

What this region was like means “new called fortified settlements surrounded by walls. Archaeologists found three settlements located on the territory occupied by the Novgorod principality. The geographical location of these areas is indicated in one of the chronicles. According to information, the region was located on the left bank of the Volkhov ( where the Kremlin is now located).

Over time, the settlements merged into one. The inhabitants built a common fortress. It was named Novgorod. Researcher Nosov developed the already existing point of view that the historical predecessor of the new city was Gorodishche. It was located slightly higher, not far from the sources of the Volkhov. Judging by the chronicles, Gorodishche was a fortified settlement. The princes of the Novgorod principality and their governors stayed there. Local historians even made a rather bold assumption that Rurik himself lived in the residence. Taking all this into account, it can be argued that the Principality of Novgorod originated from this settlement. The geographical location of the Settlement can be considered an additional argument. It stood on the Baltic-Volga route and was considered at that time a fairly large trade, craft and military-administrative point.

Characteristics of the Novgorod Principality

In the first centuries of its existence, the settlement was small (by modern standards). Novgorod was completely made of wood. It was located on two sides of the river, which was quite a unique phenomenon, since settlements were usually located on a hill and on one bank. The first inhabitants built their houses near the water, but not close to it, due to fairly frequent floods. The streets of the city were built perpendicular to Volkhov. A little later they were connected by “breakout” lanes that ran parallel to the river. The walls of the Kremlin rose from the left bank. At that time it was much smaller than the one that stands in Novgorod now. On the other bank, in the Slovenian village, there were estates and a princely court.

Russian chronicles

The Principality of Novgorod is mentioned quite little in the records. However, this little information is of particular value. The chronicle, dated 882, talks about something from Novgorod. As a result, two large East Slavic tribes united: the Polyans and the Ilmen Slavs. It was from that time that the history of the Old Russian state began. Records from 912 indicate that the Principality of Novgorod paid the Scandinavians 300 hryvnia a year to maintain peace.

Records of other peoples

The Novgorod principality is also mentioned in Byzantine chronicles. For example, Emperor Constantine VII wrote about the Russians in the 10th century. The Principality of Novgorod also appears in the Scandinavian sagas. The earliest legends appeared from the reign of the sons of Svyatoslav. After his death, a power struggle broke out between his two sons Oleg and Yaropolk. In 977, a battle took place. As a result, Yaropolk defeated Oleg’s troops and became the Grand Duke, installing his mayors in Novgorod. There was also a third brother. But fearing being killed, Vladimir fled to Scandinavia. However, his absence was relatively short-lived. In 980, he returned to the Principality of Novgorod with hired Varangians. Then he defeated the mayors and moved towards Kyiv. There Vladimir overthrew Yaropolk from the throne and became the Prince of Kyiv.

Religion

A description of the Novgorod principality will be incomplete without talking about the importance of faith in the life of the people. In 989 baptism took place. First it was in Kyiv, and then in Novgorod. Power increased due to the Christian religion and its monotheism. The church organization was built on a hierarchical principle. It became a powerful tool for the formation of Russian statehood. In the year of baptism, Joachim Korsunian (Byzantine priest) was sent to Novgorod. But, it must be said that Christianity did not immediately take root. Many residents were in no hurry to part with the faith of their ancestors. According to archaeological excavations, many pagan rituals survived until the 11th-13th centuries. And, for example, Maslenitsa is still celebrated today. Although this holiday is given a somewhat Christian overtone.

Yaroslav's activities

After Vladimir became prince of Kyiv, he sent his son Vysheslav to Novgorod, and after his death - Yaroslav. The name of the latter is associated with an attempt to get rid of the influence of Kyiv. So, in 1014, Yaroslav refused to pay tribute. Vladimir, having learned about this, began to gather a squad, but during the preparation he suddenly died. Svyatopolk the Accursed ascended the throne. He killed his brothers: Svyatoslav Drevlyansky and Gleb and Boris, who were later canonized. Yaroslav was in a rather difficult position. On the one hand, he was absolutely not against seizing power in Kyiv. But on the other hand, his squad was not strong enough. Then he decided to address the Novgorodians with a speech. Yaroslav called on the people to capture Kyiv, thus returning to themselves everything that had been taken away in the form of tribute. The residents agreed, and after some time, in the battle of Lyubech, Svyatopolk was completely defeated and fled to Poland.

Further developments

In 1018, together with the squad of Boleslav (his father-in-law and the King of Poland), Svyatopolk returned to Rus'. In the battle, they thoroughly defeated Yaroslav (he fled with four warriors from the field). He wanted to go to Novgorod, and then planned to move to Scandinavia. But the residents did not let him do this. They chopped up all the boats, collected money and a new army, giving the prince the opportunity to continue fighting. At this time, confident that he was firmly seated on the throne, Svyatopolk quarreled with the Polish king. Deprived of support, he lost the battle on Alta. After the battle, Yaroslav sent the Novgorodians home, giving them special letters - “Truth” and “Charter”. They had to live by them. Over the next decades, the Principality of Novgorod also depended on Kyiv. First, Yaroslav sent his son Ilya as governor. Then he sent Vladimir, who founded the fortress in 1044. The following year, at his behest, construction began on a new stone cathedral instead of the wooden St. Sophia Cathedral (which burned down). Since that time, this temple has symbolized Novgorod spirituality.

Political system

It took shape gradually. There are two periods in history. In the first there was a feudal republic, where the prince ruled. And in the second, control belonged to the oligarchy. During the first period, all the main bodies of state power existed in the Novgorod principality. The Boyar Council and the Veche were considered the highest institutions. Executive power was vested in the thousand and princely courts, mayor, elders, volostels and volostel managers. The evening had special significance. It was considered the supreme power and had greater power here than in other principalities. The veche decided on issues of domestic and foreign policy, expelled or elected the ruler, townsman and other officials. It was also the highest court. Another body was the Council of Boyars. The entire city government system was concentrated in this body. The Council included: eminent boyars, elders, thousand, mayors, archbishop and prince. The power of the ruler himself was significantly limited in functions and scope, but at the same time, of course, occupied a leading place in the governing bodies. At first, the candidacy of the future prince was discussed at the Council of Boyars. After this, he was invited to sign the contract document. It regulated the legal and state status and responsibilities of the authorities in relation to the ruler. The prince lived with his court on the outskirts of Novgorod. The ruler did not have the right to make laws or proclaim war or peace. Together with the mayor, the prince commanded the army. The existing restrictions did not allow the rulers to gain a foothold in the city and put them in a controlled position.

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Introduction

During the period of feudal fragmentation, an independent public education- Principality of Novgorod. This principality differed from others in its very original political structure: the supreme power belonged not to the prince, but to the veche, therefore it is right to call Novgorod a republic, the nature of the economy: here, crafts and trade, and an original culture were developed to the highest degree for Rus' at that time. The study of these features allows us to explain many problems of our time.

But since three features of the Novgorod Republic can be identified, the presentation of information about Novgorod in the main part of the abstract is divided into three parts: government system, economics and culture. Geographical location clause and preliminary historical information in the introduction are needed to show in what space and at what time the Novgorod Republic existed.

1. Geographical location

The Novgorod Republic in its heyday owned a vast territory. Its lands extended from the Baltic Sea in the west to Ural mountains in the east and from White Sea in the north to the upper reaches of the Volga and Western Dvina in the south. Novgorod owned the Volga, Izhora and Karelian lands, the southern and western coasts Kola Peninsula, Obonezhye, Zaonezhye and Zavolchye. Until the 14th century, the Novgorod Republic also included the Pskov land. Such vastness of territories is a consequence of Novgorod’s active colonialist activities. The Novgorod land itself, which was like the core of the Novgorod Republic, covered the basin of Lake Ilmen and the flows of the Volkhov, Msta, Lovat and Sheloni rivers. Thus, the main directions of colonization are the north and northeast.

In addition to the fact that the climate of North-West Rus' is not conducive to successful agriculture, the Novgorod lands were also swampy and non-chernozem. This caused, firstly, the need to compensate for the shortcomings of agriculture through the development of industry and trade and, secondly, the food dependence of Novgorod on the more southern principalities.

Novgorod was located on waterway from the “Varangians to the Greeks,” which created another prerequisite for the development of trade.

In the south, Novgorod bordered on the Polotsk and Smolensk principalities, in the southeast and east - on the Vladimir-Suzdal principality, in the west, since 1237, the aggressive Livonian Order became a neighbor of the Novgorod Republic.

2. Preliminary historical information

The first mention of Novgorod in chronicles dates back to the 9th century, and it is mentioned as already existing city. Therefore install the exact date formation of Novgorod is impossible.

In 862, Rurik was called to reign in Novgorod, and Sineus and Truvor, who ruled in Beloozero and Izborsk, were invited along with him. After the death of the last two, their estates passed to Rurik, and thus the first Russian state with its capital in Novgorod. After Rurik, Oleg began to reign. He captured Kyiv and 882. moved the capital there, and appointed a tribute to Novgorod of 300 hryvnia and a mayor; Novgorod was equal in rights to other cities of Rus'.

In 988 St. Prince Vladimir baptizes Rus'. This event, of course, played a huge role in the history of Novgorod. The adoption of Orthodoxy became the basis for the formation of the Russian nation, but the situation is unnatural when a single nation does not have a single state, therefore the Baptism of Rus' justified, in particular, the annexation of Novgorod to the Moscow state, which followed in the 15th century.

In 1014, Prince Yaroslav the Wise, who reigned in Novgorod, refused to pay the due tribute to his father, Grand Duke Vladimir. Then Vladimir began to prepare a campaign against Novgorod, but in the midst of preparations he suddenly died. Svyatopolk, who went down in history with the nickname of the Damned, was proclaimed Grand Duke by the Kyiv boyars. He villainously killed his brothers Boris, Gleb and Svyatoslav. Svyatopolk’s plans also included the elimination of Yaroslav. Yaroslav gathered an army and, after a three-year struggle with Svyatopolk, supported by the Poles, won a victory and occupied the grand-ducal throne. In Novgorod, Yaroslav the Wise achieved high respect; his name is associated with the beginning of the isolation of Novgorod.

After Yaroslav, Novgorod's ambitions begin to increase. And so, in 1136, the Novgorodians expelled Prince Vsevolod-Gabriel with the wording “does not respect the smerds”; this was the beginning of the Novgorod Republic. Since 1136, the prince ceased to be the supreme power in Novgorod; he was called upon by the veche and performed mainly military and police functions.

Having won independence, the Novgorodians were forced to defend it. In the XII-XIII centuries. the main contenders for Novgorod were the Smolensk, Vladimir and Chernigov princes. In 1170, Andrei Bogolyubsky made an unsuccessful campaign against Novgorod, but his younger brother Vsevolod Big Nest in 1201 he was able to subjugate Novgorod, and began to send there those princes who were beneficial to him. The dominance of the Vladimir principality did not last long. In 1212, after the death of Vsevolod, a war began, first hidden, and then with real military actions, between Yuri and Konstantin Vsevolodovich. In this war, Konstantin was helped by the new prince of Novgorod Mstislav Mstislavich from the Smolensk Monomakhovich dynasty. As a result of the Battle of Lipitsa in 1216, Novgorod gained independence, and the Principality of Vladimir finally lost control over it.

However, at this time a serious threat arose for the Novgorod Republic in the form of German and Swedish feudal lords. Therefore, it was necessary to strengthen the princely, that is, military, power to repel the invaders. Novgorodians invited Prince Alexander Yaroslavich. He defeated the Swedes on the Neva River in 1240, for which he began to be called Nevsky, and in 1242 - the Germans. Alexander Nevsky enjoyed well-deserved respect among the Novgorodians, and under him the prince’s authority in Novgorod greatly increased. It must be said that the invasion of invaders from the West occurred simultaneously with the formation of the Tatar yoke, and only thanks to the wisdom and humility of St. blessed Prince Alexander Nevsky, the Russian people managed to avoid disaster; the prince understood that it was difficult to fight on two fronts, and that the rule of a tolerant khan was preferable to the fire and sword of Catholic missionaries. After St. Alexander Nevsky, the princely power never again had such high authority in the Novgorod Republic.

In the Novgorod Republic, citizens were legally equal, but in fact the Novgorod population was divided into several classes or groups. This discrepancy between actual and legal rights, as will be shown later, became the cause of social antagonism and conflicts, which, in turn, led Novgorod to decline. The Novgorod Republic fell into decline simultaneously with the strengthening of the Moscow principality and the gathering of lands around it, so it was impossible to avoid the annexation of Novgorod, as a Russian principality, to the emerging Russian state. However, for some time Novgorod found the strength to defend its independence, often resorting to foreign assistance.

Part of the boyars in the fight against Moscow sought support from the Lithuanian princes. In the 40s. Polish king And Grand Duke Lithuanian Casimir IV received under a treaty the right to collect irregular tribute from some Novgorod volosts. In 1456, Moscow troops defeated the Novgorod army near Rusa. As a result, the Yazhelbitsky Treaty was concluded. According to this agreement, Novgorod was obliged not to accept the enemies of Vasily II, was deprived of the right of external relations and legislative rights, the prince became the highest court, and the Novgorod veche seal was replaced by the seal of the Grand Duke.

In the spring of 1471, the Novgorodians concluded an agreement with Casimir IV, according to which Novgorod recognized him as their prince, accepted his governor, and the king undertook to defend Novgorod with his army in the event that a military threat emanated from Moscow. This meant a declaration of war on Moscow. The main battle took place on the Sheloni River. Despite the enormous numerical superiority, the Novgorodians were defeated by the Moscow army, losing 14 thousand.

Peace negotiations that began soon resulted in the signing of an agreement in Korostyn, according to which Moscow received a large indemnity from Novgorod, and the Novgorodians pledged to return Ivan III the lands that his father owned, pay tribute, consecrate him to the rank of archbishop only in Moscow, not communicate with the King of Poland and the Grand Duke of Lithuania, cancel veche letters and not draw up letters of judgment without the approval of the Grand Duke.

After the departure of Moscow troops, the situation in Novgorod again began to deteriorate. In the spring of 1477, Ivan III sent his ambassadors there. At a meeting convened on this occasion, a letter was written, the meaning of which was that Veliky Novgorod did not call Ivan III to be its sovereign. In October 1477, an army led by Grand Duke Ivan III left Moscow in the Novgorod direction. At the beginning of December, Novgorod was completely blocked, and a month later it surrendered. The residents were sworn in to allegiance to the Grand Duke, and the veche bell was removed and taken to Moscow; The Novgorod Republic ceased to exist.

Thus, the period of existence of the Novgorod Republic is determined by the period 1136-1478.

3. Government structure

Administrative division.

Novgorod was divided by Volkhov into two parts, or sides, the Trade and Sofia. These sides were connected by the Great Bridge. The trading side received its name from the trading place located there, that is, the market. At the auction there was Yaroslav's courtyard, where the veche gathered, the stage was the platform from which speeches were made at the veche. Near the degree there was a tower with a veche bell, and the veche office was also located there. The Sofia side received its name from the St. Sophia Cathedral located there.

Novgorod was also divided into 5 ends or districts: Slavensky and Plotnitsky made up the Trade side, and Nerevsky, Zagorodsky and Goncharsky made up the Sofia side. The division into ends was historical. Novgorod was made up of several settlements or villages, which at first were independent settlements, and then united to form a city (1). Slavenskoe end used to be a separate city - Slovenskoe. In the middle of the 9th century, the Rurik settlement became the residence of the princes, and the Novaya fortress was built opposite Slovensk, which soon became Novgorod. The Zagorodsky End, judging by its name, was the last to be formed; initially it was located outside the city, and only after the construction of the fortress could it become part of it. The ends of Plotnitsky and Goncharsky probably used to be working-class suburbs of Slovensk, in which carpenters and potters lived, respectively. The name of the fifth end, Nerevsky, can be explained by the fact that “on the ditch” means “on the outskirts”. That is, the name of the end indicated that it was located on the very outskirts of the city.

Each end was assigned a specific land. There were five pyatinas in total - according to the number of ends: Votskaya, which extended to the north-west of Novgorod, between the Volkhov and Luga rivers towards the Gulf of Finland, which received its name from the Vod tribe that lived here; Obonezhskaya - in the northeast, to the right of Volkhov towards the White Sea; Derevskaya to the southeast, between the rivers Mstoya and Lovat; Shelonskaya to the southwest, between Lovat and Luga, on both sides of the Sheloni River; Bezhetskaya - far to the east and southeast, behind the Pyatina Obonezhskaya and Derevskaya.

Most likely, the Novgorod land was divided into pyatins between the ends in order to collect taxes from the population living there in a more systematic way. Perhaps Novgorod regularly redistributed pyatinas between different ends to reduce the likelihood of corruption.

In addition to Pyatina, in the Novgorod Republic there was a division into volosts. Volosts are possessions that are more distant and acquired later (2). The volosts included cities that were jointly owned with other principalities, such as Volok-Lamsky, Bezhichi, Torzhok, Rzhev, Velikiye Luki with their districts. Volok-Lamsky, Bezhichi and Torzhok were in joint possession with the Grand Dukes of Vladimir, and then of Moscow; and Rzhev and Velikiye Luki - with the princes of Smolensk. The volosts included a vast part of the Novgorod Republic, located in the northeast of Pyatina Bezhetskaya and Obonezhskaya - Dvinskaya land or Zavolochye. On the Vychegda River and its tributaries there was the Perm volost. Further to the northeast was the volost of Pechora on both sides of the river of the same name, and beyond the Ural Mountains was Yugra. On the northern shore of the White Sea there was the volost of Tre, or the Tersky coast.

All administrative-territorial units of the Novgorod Republic enjoyed broad rights. It is known, for example, that ends and pyatins were ruled by elected officials, and Pskov and other cities had their own prince (3).

Social system.

First of all, the Novgorod population was divided into better and lesser people. Moreover, the smaller ones were not smaller in terms of political rights, but only in terms of economic situation and actual value. Actual inequality with complete legal equality became the cause of numerous Novgorod riots.

In addition to the general division into better and lesser, Novgorod society was divided into three classes: top class- boyars, middle - living people, natives and merchants, lowest - black people.

The Novgorod boyars, unlike the boyars of other principalities, were not the prince’s squad, but large landowners and capitalists. The boyars stood at the head of the entire Novgorod society. It was formed from the military foreman who ruled Novgorod before the appearance of Rurik. Due to various circumstances, this nobility did not lose its privileged position even under the princes. Already in the 11th century. The princes who ruled Novgorod appointed people from the local society to local government positions. Thus, the Novgorod administration became native in its personnel even before it became elected (4). The boyars were the main political force in Novgorod. Receiving colossal income from their lands, the boyars had the opportunity to bribe “screamers” at the assembly and carry out the decisions they needed. In addition, possessing large capital, the boyars lent them to merchants and thus stood at the head of trade turnover.

The middle class of Novgorod society was mainly represented by living people. Living people are the population of average income. They were a kind of shareholders investing in the development of international trade. Receiving income from their lands, living people invested them in merchant enterprises, from which they made a profit. In the political life of the city, this class carried out judicial and diplomatic assignments from the Council of Gentlemen and represented the ends in which they lived.

Unlike other Russian principalities, Novgorod retained a class of small landowners - homeowners. But the land ownership of their own landowners was somewhat different from the usual boyar land ownership - their own landowners very rarely owned lands alone. Usually, fellow residents cultivated and acquired land together - some semblance of a peasant community. The natives either cultivated their land themselves or rented it out to peasants. The natives differed from the peasants in that they had full rights to the land. They were mostly city dwellers who bought land, like today's summer residents, only the lands of their own people were larger and were mostly rented out. The natives formed together into agricultural partnerships, called syabrs or storekeepers.

The merchant class was a trading class that profited from Novgorod's favorable geographical location. Merchants mainly worked with the help of the capital of the boyars and living people. The Novgorod merchants conducted large transit trade and had their own land holdings. Gradually, the merchant class began to divide into “hundreds.” Each hundred had its own charter, its own privileges. The most privileged merchant society was called the “Ivanovo hundred” and met at the Church of John the Baptist. According to its charter, in order to become a full and hereditary member of this society, it was necessary to contribute 50 hryvnia of silver. The council of the society, consisting of two merchant elders chaired by a thousand, was in charge of all trade affairs and the commercial court in Novgorod (5).

The population that did not belong to the first two classes was called “black people.” Of course, black people made up the majority of the population of the Novgorod Republic. These included artisans and small traders who lived in cities, as well as the rural population: smerdas and zemstvos. They were responsible for the construction and repair of bridges and roads, the construction of churches and city fortifications, war time were conscripted into the militia. Black people, like the entire free population of Novgorod, had the right to take part in the meetings.

The bulk of the rural population were stinkers. Initially, they had their own farm and paid tribute to the state. With the development of boyar land ownership, they increasingly turned into an economically dependent population.

Gradually, the smerds fell into two categories - community members, who paid taxes to Novgorod, and smerds, who were divided into mortgage holders and ladles. The mortgagees were peasants who left the community and became dependent on the boyars. Ladles were peasants who lived on the lands of private owners. They got their name from the type rent for the land - half the harvest. But in Novgorod land there were also more preferential rental conditions - a third or a quarter of the harvest all depended on the value of the land in a given place. Ladles performed duties only in favor of their own master. According to the type of work, ladles were divided into izorniks (plowmen), gardeners and kochetniks (fishermen). The ladle had the right to leave his master once a year within the period established by law - Philip's plot. Before leaving, the ladle had to fully repay his debt to the master.

The most powerless group of the population in Novgorod were the zemstvos (slaves). Zemtsy gradually lost their rights with the development of boyar land ownership. Initially, a zemstvo could not be judged without his master. The agreement between the Novgorodians and Prince Yaroslav Yaroslavich in 1270 decided not to believe the denunciations of slaves against their masters.

Veche and Council of Gentlemen.

The highest bodies of state power in Novgorod were the veche and the Council of Gentlemen.

In its origin, the Novgorod veche was a city meeting, similar to the others that existed in other cities of Rus' in the 12th century (6). The Veche was not a permanent body. It was not convened periodically, but only when there was a real need for it. Most often this happened during wars, uprisings and the conscription of princes. The veche was convened by the prince, mayor or thousand on the Trade side of the city, at the Yaroslav's courtyard, or the veche was convened by the will of the people, on the Sofia or Trade side. It consisted of residents of both Novgorod and its suburbs; There were no restrictions among Novgorod citizens: every free and independent person could go to the assembly. The veche met by the ringing of the veche bell.

In fact, the veche consisted of those who could come to it, that is, mainly residents of Novgorod, since the convening of the veche was not announced in advance. But sometimes delegates from large suburbs of Novgorod, such as Pskov, Ladoga and others, were present at the meeting. For example, Ladoga and Pskov residents attended the meeting in 1136. More often, however, residents of the suburbs came to the meeting to complain about one or another decision of the Novgorodians. So, in 1384, the residents of Orekhov and Korela sent their delegates to Novgorod with a complaint against the Lithuanian prince Patricius, who had been imprisoned by the Novgorodians. Issues to be discussed at the veche were proposed to him by the prince, mayor or thousand. The veche had legislative initiative and resolved issues foreign policy and internal structure, and also judged the most important crimes. The veche had the right to pass laws, invite and expel the prince, elect, judge and remove the mayor and mayor from office, resolve their disputes with the princes, resolve issues of war and peace, distribute volosts for feeding to the princes.

The decisions of the meeting were made unanimously; In case of disagreement, the veche was divided into parties, and the strongest forced the weakest to agree. Sometimes, as a result of strife, two meetings were convened; one on Torgovaya, the other on the Sofia side. The conflict ended with both parties meeting on the Great Bridge and fighting if the intervention of the clergy did not prevent bloodshed.

At the veche there was no concept of a quorum, and hence one time the entire population of the city could be at the veche and not pass the law, and another time - a hundredth part of the population and pass a law that was beneficial only to this part. The result of the vote was determined not by the number of votes, but by the strength of the throats of those shouting: for which they shouted louder, it was considered accepted.

Since the veche did not meet constantly, but only when it was convened, a permanent body of power was needed that would administer the Novgorod Republic. The Council of Gentlemen became such a body of power. It consisted of old and sedate posadniks, thousanders, sotskies and an archbishop. The council had an aristocratic character, the number of its members in the 15th century. reached 50. This body developed from the ancient institution of power - the boyar duma of the prince with the participation of city elders. In the 12th century. The prince invited city councilors and elders to his council with his boyars. As the prince lost organic ties with local Novgorod society, he and the boyars were gradually forced out of the council. He was replaced by the local ruler, the Archbishop, who became the permanent chairman of the Council.

Frequent changes of senior officials in Novgorod became the reason for the rapid growth of the composition of the Council of Gentlemen. All members of the Council, except the chairman, were called boyars.

The council of gentlemen prepared and presented at the meeting legislative issues, presented ready-made bills, but he did not have his own voice in the adoption of laws. The Council also carried out general supervision over the work of the state apparatus and officials of the republic, and controlled the activities of the executive branch. He, together with the prince, the mayor and the thousand, decided on the convening of the veche and subsequently directed all its activities.

The Council of Gentlemen was of great importance in the political life of Novgorod. It consisted of representatives of the highest Novgorod class, which had a powerful economic influence on the entire city; this preparatory council often predetermined the questions raised by it at the veche, conducting among the citizens the answers it had prepared. Thus, the veche very often became a weapon to give the decisions of the Council legitimacy in the eyes of citizens.

4. Executive branch

The main executive authority in Novgorod was the mayor (7).

Posadnik is the highest elected official executive, which was executive body veche, to which management of the affairs of the republic was transferred. Officially, he was elected by the veche from among all full-fledged citizens of Novgorod, but in fact the mayor was elected from the few most noble families of the Novgorod Republic. So, during the 13th and 14th centuries, 12 mayors were elected from one family of mayor Mikhalk Stepanovich. The term of the mayor was not limited, but in fact the mayors held their position for one to two years. Posadniks who resigned were called “old posadniks,” in contrast to “sedate posadniks.”

The area of ​​activity of the mayors was very extensive. They directed the activities of all persons of the Novgorod Republic, exercised control over their work, together with the prince were in charge of issues of administration and court, commanded troops during campaigns, supervised the construction of defensive structures, conducted diplomatic relations with other Russian principalities and foreign states, led meetings of the Council of Gentlemen and evening meetings. The mayor, as a representative of the city, protected the interests of Novgorod and the entire Novgorod Republic before the prince. Without him, the prince could not judge the Novgorodians and distribute Novgorod volosts. In the absence of the prince, the mayor ruled the entire city. The mayor did not receive a specific salary, but enjoyed a special tax from the volosts, called "poralie".

Particularly interesting is the position of the prince in Novgorod, which was very different from the position of the princes in other Russian regions. The prince was the highest judicial and military authority in Novgorod, led and administered the court, sealed deals and asserted rights. The prince was invited by the Novgorod council, and he was obliged to sign an agreement with Novgorod - a series. According to these agreements, the role of the prince in governing the Novgorod Republic was determined.

The first traces of such treaties appear in the 12th century. Later they are more clearly indicated in the chronicles. In 1209, the Novgorodians helped the Grand Duke of Vladimir Vsevolod the Big Nest in his campaign against Ryazan. As a reward for this, Vsevolod said to the Novgorodians: “Love those who are good to you, and execute the evil ones.” At the same time, Vsevolod gave the Novgorodians “all the will and regulations of the old princes, what they wanted” (8). In 1218, instead of Prince Toropetsky Mstislav Mstislavich the Udal, who ruled in Novgorod, his relative Svyatoslav Mstislavich Smolensky came. He demanded a change of mayor Tverdislav. The Novgorodians asked the prince about the reason for the change, to which he replied that he demanded that the mayor be removed from his post “without guilt.” Then Tverdislav said, addressing the meeting: “I am glad that I am not guilty, and you, brothers, are free to be mayors and princes.” Then the veche reminded the prince that he had kissed the cross and promised not to remove the mayor without guilt (9).

From here it is clear that the prince is already in early XIII V. Before arriving in Novgorod, he kissed the cross - that is, he signed a series with the Novgorodians, which defined their relationship. The benefits of the Novgorodians, which the princes were obliged to observe, were set out in the ranks. The oldest series that have survived to our time are two treaties between Prince Yaroslav Yaroslavich of Tver and the Novgorodians - 1265 and 1270. The later letters, with some changes, repeat these two letters. The main condition of the Novgorodians was that the prince “keep Novgorod in the old days according to duty,” that is, according to Novgorod customs, without violating them. It follows that all the points outlined in the ranks of Yaroslav Yaroslavich Tver with the Novgorodians were formed long before him, during the 11th-12th centuries. The ranks with the princes determined the three most important blocks of relations between Novgorod and the princes: judicial-administrative, financial and commercial.

The prince did not have the right to judge without a mayor: "... without a mayor, you, prince, do not judge the court, nor distribute volosts, nor give letters..." The prince had the right to appoint people from the Novgorod population to lower positions in the administration of the Novgorod Republic. but did not have the right to appoint people from his squad or his boyars. Moreover, the prince could appoint people to all these positions only with the consent of the mayor. Also, the prince could not distribute the volosts for feeding without the consent of the mayor. The prince could not take away the position from a Novgorod official without first declaring his guilt at the assembly. The prince could fulfill all his duties only in Novgorod itself: “And from the Suzhdal land of Novgorod, do not row, nor distribute the volosts.”

Financial relations between the Novgorod Republic and the prince were even more unfavorable for the prince. The prince did not have the right to collect tribute from the Novgorod possessions; he could only receive a “gift” from the Novgorod volosts, such as Volok, Torzhok, Vologda and Zavolochye, that is, those that did not belong to the Novgorod Pyatina. He also received a “gift” when he traveled to Novgorod, but did not receive it when he left Novgorod. Fearing the fall of Zavolochye, the Novgorodians did not allow direct relations between the prince and this volost, demanding that the prince farm out his Zavolochye collections to the Novgorodians. If the prince himself wanted to collect them, then he had to send a Novgorod official to collect taxes, and he had to, before taking the tribute to the prince, take it to Novgorod, from where only the prince could receive tribute from Zavolochye. After the Mongol-Tatar invasion, a tribute was imposed on Novgorod - a way out, sometimes called a black tax, that is, a general tax. The Novgorodians themselves collected the black tax and delivered it to the Grand Duke, who then transported it to the Horde. In addition, the prince enjoyed various judicial and travel duties in the Novgorod Republic, various fishing, hayfields, sides, animal ruts. But this was used strictly certain rules, at a strictly defined time and in strictly determined amounts. The prince could not have his own sources of income in the Novgorod Republic, independent of Novgorod. A special condition in the ranks of the Novgorodians and the princes prohibited the prince, princess, their boyars and nobles from acquiring or establishing villages and settlements in the Novgorod land and accepting people as mortgages, that is, as personal dependence.

Novgorod needed the prince not only to defend its borders, but also to ensure the trade interests of the Novgorod Republic. The prince was obliged to give Novgorod merchants safe and free passage in his principality, to allow them to “stay without boundaries” into his domain, that is, without delay. It was precisely determined what duties to collect from each Novgorod boat or cart that came to his principality. The prince had the right to participate in foreign trade only through Novgorod intermediaries; he did not have the right to close the German court or assign his own bailiffs to it.

In the agreements between the Novgorod Republic and the princes, one important aspect of the relationship between the prince and Novgorod was passed over in silence - the defense of the Novgorod Republic from foreign invaders. Only in later letters is it mentioned that in the event of an attack on Novgorod, the prince is obliged to help Novgorod “without cunning.” The rights and duties of the prince in the letters are stated unclearly, they are only assumed, their scope and consequences are outlined, that is, rewards for the performance of duties.

Another bearer of executive power in the Novgorod Republic was the thousand. Tysyatsky was involved in regulating trade relations, the commercial court, convening the militia, defending the city and the republic, and had police functions. He, like the mayor, received his powers for an indefinite period, had under his command a whole staff of small agents who carried out various judicial and administrative-police orders, announced the decisions of the veche and called for trial, notified the court of a crime, carried out searches, etc. In addition, Tysyatsky was involved in a military court - a trial of the assembled militias. According to some researchers, Tysyatsky was elected as a counterweight to the mayor from the lower classes of Novgorod society, but this is unlikely. In addition, this opinion is contradicted by the fact that in the second half of the 15th century. The thousand was Dmitry Boretsky, the son of mayor Isaac Boretsky and Martha Boretsky, who came from a very noble and influential family.

Also, one of the most important elective positions in the Novgorod Republic was the archbishop. After separation from Kievan Rus in 1136, the Bishop of Novgorod began to be elected by the veche. The veche selected three candidates for this post and pieces of paper with these candidates were placed on the throne of St. Sophia Cathedral, and then a blind man or a boy chose one of the pieces of paper. The applicant whose name was written on this piece of paper became the Bishop of Novgorod, and from 1156 - the Archbishop of Novgorod (10). There was one exception to this rule: Archbishop Arkady of Novgorod himself appointed his successor. The Archbishop of Novgorod, as already mentioned, presided over meetings of the Council of Gentlemen, exercised the right of the ecclesiastical court, oversaw trade weights and measures, and was the custodian of the state treasury. The highest ranks of the Novgorod administration constantly listened to his voice. The archbishop was the largest feudal lord of the Novgorod Republic, owned vast lands, formed mainly from the confiscated possessions of the prince.

5. Judicial branch

In Novgorod, the judicial branch of government was not separated from the executive-administrative branch. All bodies of power and administration had judicial powers: the veche, the archbishop, the prince, the mayor, and the thousand. Upon taking office, the elected officials took an oath (“kissing the cross”). An image of the Novgorod court can be found in the surviving part of the Novgorod Judicial Charter. The source of the Judgment Charter was “old times,” that is, the legal customs of the Novgorod court and its practice, agreements with princes and veche resolutions. The court was not concentrated in a separate department, but was distributed among different government authorities. The court was very profitable, which was the reason for its fragmentation between various governing bodies. The emergence of new government institutions introduced complications into the existing judicial system. According to the treaty letters of the princes with the Novgorod Republic, the prince cannot judge without the mayor. So, according to the Novgorod Judgment Charter, the mayor judges together with the governor of the prince, and “the court does not end without the governor.” In practice, this joint jurisdiction of the posadnik and the governor was resolved by the fact that the authorized representatives of both, the tiuns, each separately examined the cases subject to their consideration in their “odrins” with the assistance of bailiffs elected by the litigants, but did not decide the cases finally, but transferred them to a higher authority either for a report, that is, to draw up a final decision, or for a review, that is, for verification, to review the case and approve the decision laid down by the tiun. In the court of this reporting and auditing instance, 10 jurors sat with the mayor and governor or with their tiuns, a boyar and a zhizhim from each end. They constituted a permanent panel of speakers, as they were called, and met in the courtyard of the Novgorod archbishop “in the lord’s room” three times a week under pain of a fine for failure to appear. Legal proceedings were further complicated by combinations of different jurisdictions in mixed cases where parties from different jurisdictions met. In a lawsuit between a church person and a layman, the city judge judged together with the lord's governor or his tiun. The princely man and the Novgorodian were judged by a special commission, consisting of two boyars, the princely and the Novgorodian, and if they could not agree on a decision, the case was reported to the prince himself when he arrived in Novgorod, in the presence of the mayor. Tysyatsky judged mainly cases of a police nature. But he was also the first of three elders in the council, which stood at the head of what arose in the 12th century. at the church of St. John the Baptist on Opochki merchant society ("Ivan's hundred") and was in charge of the commercial court. The same council, with the participation of the mayor, dealt with matters between the Novgorodians and the merchants of the German court in Novgorod.

6. Economy

Agriculture.

Agriculture played a primary role in the economy of the Novgorod Republic - medieval society was agrarian. The most important source of knowledge about agriculture is archaeology. Through a comprehensive study of grain, weed seeds and agricultural tools found during excavations, it was established that the level of development of agriculture in the Novgorod land was very high already in the 11th - 12th centuries.

Of the cultivated crops, the first place belonged to winter rye, as indicated by the predominance of winter weed seeds (the fact is that for each crop there are accompanying plants).

Wheat took second place in Novgorod agriculture. Judging by the seeds of spring weeds, in the 12th century, mainly spring wheat was grown in the Novgorod land. Barley and oats were sown to a much lesser extent than rye and wheat.

The appearance of winter rye is a sure sign of the formation of a free farming system. In conditions of old arable soils, the predecessor of a field with winter rye can only be a fallow field, which is the defining element of this system. One of its forms is two-field - alternating fallow and winter rye. Since it has been established that wheat was cultivated on the ancient Novgorod spring field, we can talk about the existence in the 12th century of a three-field crop rotation, most common under the fallow farming system. True, the swidden and shifting systems of agriculture, which had lost their former significance, still continued to exist, as well as some transitional forms of the fallow system, for example, variegated fields, when the crops of bread and fallow alternated without any order.

The agricultural technology used by ancient Novgorod farmers corresponded to the level of development of agriculture of that time. During excavations in Novgorod, openers were discovered, the design of which proves that they were used for cultivating cultivated old arable soils. In a cultural layer of the 13th century, a vomer of the so-called reinforced design was found, differing from the usual one in slightly smaller dimensions, greater thickness and a narrower working part. Such openers were intended for processing heavy soils and forest clearing. This means that the shifting system of agriculture had not yet disappeared by that time.

The land was cultivated with multi-pronged, often three-pronged, plows. The appearance of such plows was obviously associated with the transition to arable farming using draft power. The bread was harvested using sickles.

Closely connected with agriculture was cattle breeding, which also played an important role in the economy of the Novgorodians. If agriculture was the main occupation of the rural population of the Novgorod Republic, then city dwellers could also engage in cattle breeding. This is evidenced by archaeological data. In all layers of ancient Novgorod, uncovered by excavations, a huge number of animal bones were discovered. The widespread cultivation of cattle breeding in Novgorod is evidenced by a cultural layer richly saturated with manure. Novgorodians raised large and small cattle, pigs, and horses.

In addition to cattle breeding, both the rural and urban population of the Novgorod land were engaged in vegetable growing and fruit growing. Gardens and orchards were probably part of many city estates. In any case, seeds of vegetables and fruits are not a rare find during excavations. Cucumber seeds were discovered in the 13th century layers. It can also be assumed that in ancient Novgorod They grew cabbage - in the layers of the 13th century, strikers were found - hand tools for planting cabbage. Under 1215, the chronicle mentions turnips, which, apparently, were very common in Novgorod. Seeds of garden dill were discovered in layers of the 12th century.

From fruit trees the most common was cherry. Cherry pits are found very often during excavations, and greatest number- in layers of the 12th century. Apple trees were also grown in Novgorod.

Black currants and raspberries were grown from berry bushes, the seeds of which are often found during excavations.

Despite the fact that the agriculture of Veliky Novgorod was developed, as far as conditions allowed, it could not meet all the needs of the Novgorod population. As noted in the introduction, the scarcity of soil and the nature of the climate encouraged the Novgorodians to actively engage in crafts and trade. In addition, by producing goods, Novgorod could sell them to the West without intermediaries. Thus, the prerequisites for the development of crafts in the Novgorod Republic were quite significant.

The chronicles name the following craft specialties: shield maker, tanner, silver maker, boiler maker, oponnik, carnation maker, blacksmith. Silver artisans were called silversmiths. Shield makers, carnation makers and boiler makers were masters of various specialties in blacksmithing. Oponniki were artisans who worked a certain type weaving (later they became known as felt makers). Novgorodians achieved particular success in carpentry: they were known in Rus' as skilled carpenters.

At the end of the Brief Edition of Russian Pravda there is a so-called “lesson for bridge builders.” Mostniks were apparently the name given to builders of roadways or bridges. In the damp Novgorod climate, city streets without pavements would be impassable and impassable, especially in spring and autumn. The pavements were rebuilt approximately every 15 - 20 years, sometimes they were repaired, and thanks to this they lasted longer. Thus, bridge workers did not experience a shortage of work, and this specialty appeared early (the oldest Novgorod pavements date back to the middle of the 10th century). Quite often it was necessary to build bridges that constantly suffered from fires; even the Great Bridge across the Volkhov burned repeatedly. The great attention to the construction of pavements is evidenced by the so-called “Charter of Prince Yaroslav on bridges” dating back to the 60s of the 13th century, which talks about the obligation of Novgorodians to pave public areas of the city.

The craft professions mentioned in the chronicles do not exhaust all types of craft in ancient Novgorod; there were much more of them. It turned out to be possible to find out what the level of development of the craft was, how diverse the craft professions were, only after systematic archaeological work began to be carried out in Novgorod.

Excavations of Novgorod, which began in 1932 and continue to this day, showed that Novgorod was the largest craft center of its time. This conclusion was made based on the study of the remains of craft workshops uncovered by excavations and the products of Novgorod artisans. Of course, not all craft workshops left behind traces from which one can reliably establish what their inhabitants were doing. A craft workshop can be identified, first of all, by a large number of production residues, as well as by defective products, semi-finished products and tools. As a result of excavations carried out in different areas of the city, the remains of craft workshops were discovered. This indicates that the majority of the population of ancient Novgorod was engaged in various crafts.

The 12th century and the first half of the 13th century were the heyday of crafts in many ancient Russian cities. But the heavy burden of the Tatar yoke could not but affect the production spheres of Rus'. Many cities were destroyed, thousands of people, including artisans, were killed or taken into captivity. As a result of this, the craft fell into decline. Novgorod the Great escaped ruin by escaping with tribute.

However, if in a number of cities destroyed by the Tatar-Mongol invasion, the period preceding it turned out to be the time of the highest flowering of medieval crafts (the pre-Mongol level of handicraft production in these cities could not be reached at a later time), then this cannot be said about Novgorod. The process of development of productive forces in the Novgorod feudal republic was not interrupted, and in the second half of the 13th century they continued to develop in an ascending line. Novgorod craft, like Novgorod itself, reached its peak in the 14th century.

The high level of ironworking production contributed to the progress of many other crafts that could not have developed successfully without the appropriate tools. Based on the study of various tools, it can be argued that in Novgorod, in addition to masters of various blacksmith specialties, mechanics, turners, joiners, carpenters, woodworkers, woodcarvers, bone carvers, tanners, shoemakers, tailors, and jewelers worked. Study of a huge number of household items and other finished products, as well as semi-finished and defective products helps to supplement the list of specialties of Novgorod artisans. Noteworthy is the wide variety of both finished products and tools.

Obviously, artisans in Novgorod specialized in the production of certain types of products. Moreover, sometimes the same master worked various types crafts. Shoemaker, for example, for a long time was also a tanner, which is confirmed by joint finds of remains of both productions. Only in the 12th - 13th centuries did the shoemaking craft separate from the tanning craft. The shield maker, in addition to knowledge of blacksmithing, had to have skills in processing copper, wood and leather, since shields were made from all these materials. But at the same time, a narrow specialization developed in the blacksmith’s craft (nail makers, lock makers, etc.).

A variety of metal jewelry: bracelets, rings, brooches, pendants, beads were made by highly qualified jewelers. Determined that most of jewelry discovered during excavations in Novgorod is a locally produced product. This is confirmed by finds of jewelry workshops, tools and semi-finished products. Master jewelers mastered a number of complex technical techniques: casting, free forging, drawing, rolling, embossing, chasing, engraving, soldering, gilding, champlevé enamel, heat treatment of copper and bronze.

A huge number of remnants of leather shoes and scraps of leather is evidence of the widespread use of shoemaking in Novgorod.

Pottery production was also developed. The most common finds during excavations are numerous fragments of pottery.

Weaving received significant development in ancient Novgorod. During excavations, many scraps of various fabrics were discovered in all layers. Based on a study of textile samples, it was established that until the middle of the 13th century, the main production tool was a vertical loom, but a more productive horizontal loom was also known in Novgorod, as evidenced by the finds of its parts. Weavers made fabrics from ready-made yarn, linen and wool. Spinning in Novgorod has been known since the earliest times (during excavations, many wooden spindles, flax carders, flappers, spindle whorls, and spinning wheels were found).

Craftsmen involved in wood processing also made up a very large group of Novgorod craftsmen. The huge variety of wooden products discovered during excavations (spoons, ladles, bowls, carved vessels, disks, dishes) indicates a high level of development of woodworking craft. In addition to turning tools, parts of a lathe were found. Often found are blank spoons, unfinished and damaged wooden ladles, bowls, and tops.

Combs, knife handles, various jewelry, piercings, checkers, chess pieces, buttons, etc. were most often made from bone. Processed pieces of bone, sawn pieces of horn, and semi-finished combs were found in all Novgorod layers. The technique of bone processing was high, as evidenced by the finds of both high-quality bone products themselves and the tools with which they were made.

The largest group of finds in Novgorod consists of glass products, and, first of all, fragments of glass bracelets. Until recently, it was believed that the vast majority of bracelets were made in the workshops of ancient Kyiv, from where they were distributed throughout Rus'. The existence of local production of bracelets in Novgorod, Smolensk, Polotsk and other cities was only assumed.

Using data from archaeological excavations, researchers have established that Novgorod had its own bracelet production (in addition to Kyiv imports) and that it appeared in pre-Mongol times. It was also established that initially Novgorod bracelets were made from lead-silica glass, which in its composition did not differ from the glass known in other cities, but it always contained antimony oxide as a microimpurity. Appearance own production bracelets in Novgorod are associated with the resettlement of bracelet makers from Kyiv who could not withstand the competition in their homeland. The first bracelets appeared in Novgorod around the middle of the 12th century. In addition, during excavations, bracelets made of potassium-lead-silica glass were found.

At the turn of the 12th and 13th centuries, there were already two glassmaking schools in Novgorod. Glassmakers of the first school melted lead-silica glass and made green, yellow and brown bracelets from it. The masters of the second school brewed potassium-lead-silica glass and made from it bracelets of all colors known in Rus', while producing mainly turquoise, violet and blue bracelets, which their competitors, the glassmakers of the first school, could not make. This indicates a certain specialization in bracelet production.

Some craft professions have to be judged only by insignificant material finds. A number of specialties did not leave behind archaeological traces at all.

These include bread makers, kalachniks, and various specialized tailors, which we can learn about from scribe books of the 16th century and which obviously existed in an earlier time, since the need for their products existed before.

Trade.

Trade played an important role in the economy of ancient Russian cities. Russian merchants traded with the Baltic states and the Arab East, with Byzantium and the countries of Western Europe. Even in pre-Mongol times, a number of large craft and trade centers formed in Rus', of which Novgorod stood out in the north. The products of artisans had to find markets, and not only in the city itself, but also in nearby districts and in more distant places. If at first the artisan was also a merchant, then later a special class of merchants emerged. Merchants specialized in trade, so the emergence of this class contributed to the development of external and internal trade relations.

Trade ties within the Novgorod land undoubtedly existed for a long time, and they arose earlier than foreign trade ties, but it is quite difficult to trace them due to the extreme paucity of chronicle reports. The village was of little interest to the city chronicler, and other cities were mentioned by him only in connection with some important political events. Archaeologically, these connections are also almost impossible to trace, since it is impossible to determine the difference between many locally produced items made in different cities of the Novgorod land, for example, iron knives made in Novgorod, Pskov or Russa.

One can only distinguish objects made by rural artisans from products of highly skilled urban craftsmen.

In Novgorod, as in the ancient Russian village in general, subsistence farming dominated. The basic needs of the rural population were satisfied within their own households, and they received the things needed in the household and everyday life, as a rule, from rural artisans. Only high-quality steel tools, weapons, some types of jewelry, and jewelry had to be purchased in the city. Exchange in rural areas most likely occurred in its simplest form, when a blacksmith (or other rural artisan) received meat, grain, fish, etc. for his products.

Agricultural products came from the village to the city for sale and were sold for money. The purchase and sale took place “at the auction”, the city market, which was in every city. Here prices for goods were usually set, fluctuating depending on various circumstances, mainly depending on harvests and crop failures. The chronicle repeatedly indicates an increase in prices, mainly for bread, during famine years.

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Novgorod land is one of the main centers of formation of ancient Rus' as a state. This was facilitated by the geographical location of the Novgorod lands. The modern Novgorod region is located in the European part of the Russian Federation, in its northwestern part. It borders: with the Leningrad region - in the north, with the Vologda and Tver regions - in the south, and with the Pskov region - in the west. The geographical position of the Novgorod land favored the rapid formation of the Novgorod Republic as an independent and independent military-political territory. The city of Novgorod was located on the water trade route, called by historians “from the Varangians to the Greeks.” Along the mentioned trade route, trade was intensively carried out between the feudal states of North-West Europe and Byzantium. The modern Novgorod region is located on the Ilmen lowland, the Valdai Upland and the Tikhvin ridge. The following rivers flow through its territory: Volkhov, Msta, Polist, Shelon and Lovat. During the Middle Ages, these rivers served as the main transport infrastructure of the Novgorod Republic. Currently, the importance of the rivers of the Novgorod region for the national economic activities of the region is insignificant. Of the lakes in the Novgorod region, three of the largest can be noted: Ilmen, Valdai Lake and Lake Velye.

The geographical position of the Novgorod land determines its climate as moderate continental. Precipitation on its territory reaches up to 850 mm per year. The average temperature background in July is +15-18 degrees, and in January -7-10 degrees. During its peak period, the Novgorod Republic owned vast territories from the Baltic Sea to the Ural Mountains and from the White Sea to the Volga. This was a consequence of its aggressive colonialist policy and ensuring its own food security. The whole point is that geographical location of Novgorod land is not conducive to the effective development of agriculture. The non-chernozem marshy soils of the Novgorod Republic limited the possibilities of cultivated agriculture, and the Novgorodians had to colonize the southwestern adjacent territories with a more favorable climate. Veliky Novgorod during the Novgorod Republic was a completely European city and appearance, both in the number of inhabitants and in the way of life. The fact that for cultivated agriculture there was no climatic conditions, forced Novgorodians to develop various industries and crafts on the territory of the Novgorod Republic. The products produced were intensively traded with neighboring states and lands, which made it possible to form a fairly wealthy merchant class. Trade also contributed to interstate cultural exchange and foreign policy contacts.
The special geographical location of the Novgorod land in the ancient north-west gave it significant weight among the Russian feudal principalities. Novgorod controlled trade routes from North to South and from East to North-West. This made it possible for the Novgorod feudal republic to receive significant income from customs duties, develop their own trade and conduct an effective exchange of production technologies with other nations. Aggressive neighbors in the north-west (Swedes and “crusaders”) forced Novgorod to wage constant ongoing wars to preserve its borders. This circumstance forced an agreement with the Tatar-Mongol Golden Horde, which allowed Novgorod to concentrate its efforts on repelling the invasion of the Swedes and the Livonian and Teutonic orders in the first half of the 13th century. Historians claim that one of the factors that influenced Golden Horde to conclude a non-aggression treaty with Novgorod is the geographical location of the Novgorod lands. The Novgorod Republic, covered with impenetrable forests and the excessive swampiness of its territory, would have hampered the movement of mounted Tatar-Mongol troops and convoys. Perhaps it was precisely due to the geographical location of its lands that Novgorod remained one of the few Russian cities that was not plundered or wiped off the face of the earth during the Tatar-Mongol invasion. This allowed the Novgorodians to defeat the Swedes and “crusaders” pressing from the north, thereby saving medieval Rus' from final enslavement by their neighbors from the northeast. After the annexation of Novgorod to the Moscow state at the end of the 15th century, the Novgorod Republic ceased its independent existence. The vector of the policy of the Russian tsars gradually changed its direction to other territories, and Veliky Novgorod turned into an ordinary provincial territorial center.