Expansion of the territory of the Russian state. Annexation of the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates, the territories of the Volga region, the Urals, and Siberia

The main peoples of the Volga region: Mari, Mordovians, Bashkirs, Tatars, Chuvash, Kalmyks.

The need to annex the Volga region was determined as economic reasons(fertile lands, the Volga is a trade route), and both political and social (constant raids of Kazan khans and Murzas on Russian lands, the desire of the peoples subject to Kazan for liberation from the khan's oppression)..

On the fragments of the Golden Horde in the Volga region several state entities: Kazan (1438), Astrakhan (1460) khanates, Nogai Horde, as well as Bashkir nomads. Their existence on the eastern outskirts of the Moscow state caused a lot of trouble with raids, although in general they did not pose a great threat. The expansion to the east was due to the need to get rid of these khanates as sources of threat (it was Livonian War) and obstacles to advancement to Siberia. The liquidation of the khanates corresponded to the interests of merchants and local peoples Russian Volga region, as well as the passionate inertia of Russia’s expansion.

Accession in the XV-XVI centuries. to Moscow Rus' of a vast region (with an area of about 1 million km2) became an important stage in the process of formation of a multinational Russian state. With the annexation of the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates, it became a multi-ethnic region inhabited by Turkic-speaking and Finno-Ugric populations. The inclusion of such a vast territory with peoples of different levels of socio-economic development turned out to be difficult for the Russian administration a long process. Having begun at the end of the 15th century, it ended only in early XVII V. after the Trans-Ural Bashkirs joined Russia. The annexation of the Volga region was carried out in various forms: from conquest to peaceful and voluntary recognition of dependence on Muscovite Rus'.

Kazan Khanate. From 1487 to 1521 it was semi-dependent on Moscow; in 1521, Din Gireev overthrew the Moscow protege, focusing on the Crimea and Turkey. 1531-1546 - after the coup, a Moscow protege was again on the throne. In 1946 he was overthrown, which was the reason for the first campaign. Only the third campaign in 1552 brought success. In August, the Sviyazhsk fortress was built, and on October 2, after the siege, Kazan was taken by storm. This is how the Meadow side of the Kazan Khanate was annexed, which ceased to exist.

The right bank side of the Volga (Mountain side of the Kazan Khanate) was annexed to the Russian state in the summer of 1551 peacefully, “by petition” of its population. This was facilitated by the Chuvash and Mari (then Cheremis), who emerged from the dependence of Kazan in the mid-1540s.

Elites of local peoples were recruited to serve, lands were reserved for the estimated population, and a small tribute was assigned.

Astrakhan Khan Dervish Ali had recognized dependence on Moscow since 1554, but in 1556 he announced his withdrawal from Russia’s sphere of influence. In 1558 an attack was carried out on Astrakhan, Dervish Ali fled, and Astrakhan annexed without a fight.

Along the way, the Chuvash, Mordovians, and part of the Bashkirs, who were part of the Kazan Khanate and the Nogai Horde, which joined in 1557, accepted citizenship. Trans-Ural Bashkirs joined Russia in 1598. The flexible policy of annexing new multi-ethnic regions played an important role in their entry into the subordination of Moscow.

It cannot be said that the annexation was more or less peaceful. In addition to the war for Kazan, there was also an uprising (“Kazan War”), which began in 1552 and lasted until 1557. The political situation in the region did not become calm after its end. Following this, a new uprising began in the 70-80s of the 16th century, called the “Cheremis War”. However, these were only temporary obstacles to the establishment of a local administration subordinate to Moscow.

IN socially Mari, Chuvash, Mordovians were yasak peasants who were directly dependent on the state. Bashkirs, Kalmyks - military service, protection of the territory Tatars are traders, service people.

The main directions in integration: resettlement of the Russian population to the annexed territories; construction of cities, roads, monasteries. However, the policy of Russia is not everywhere. was well received by these peoples. IN Bashkortostan Uprisings began (1662-64, 1681-84), caused by the confiscation of land for the construction of monasteries, forts and outposts. But after this, the state stopped taking land from the Bashkirs and confirmed the patrimonial right to the land. Mari population as part of the Russian state never experienced serfdom, the economic and legal status of the Mari peasants differed practically little from the situation of the Russian common people. Until the twentieth century, there was practically no Russification of the Mari. By the middle of the 18th century Chuvash They were mostly converted to Christianity, there were no repressions against them, but they were not allowed to govern and did not contribute to the development of national culture. Mordva almost the same as other peoples - equal. Mid-19th century - opening of schools in Mordovian villages, teaching in Russian. IN Tatarstan the situation was more complicated. The Tatar people have not yet come to terms with their humiliation and have not lost hope of restoring their independence. Forced Christianization causes uprisings (1718, 1735, 1739), they actively participated in the Pugachev region, and fought for independence. From the end of the 18th to the beginning of the 19th century, a number of measures were taken - the main posts were given to the Orthodox, which forced them to be baptized voluntarily, a university was opened, and the number of Orthodox missionaries increased.

The annexation of these territories to Russia opened the way to Siberia, made it possible to expand trade with Iran, and provided new lands for the settlement of the passionate Russian ethnic group.

12. The first documents of the Soviet government and the Bolshevik Party on the national question (October-November 1917): content, analysis and commentary.

After the victory in the October Revolution, the national question became an urgent problem for the Bolsheviks. The first documents of the Soviet government were devoted to this issue, that is, the Decree on Peace, the Declaration of the Rights of Peoples, and the Appeal to Working Muslims of Russia and the East.

Declaration of the Rights of Peoples proclaimed:

· equality and sovereignty of the peoples of Russia (which meant independence in domestic and foreign policy);

· the right of a nation to self-determination up to the formation of an independent state (every people has the right to choose their own form of government), which negated the status of the Russian ethnic group as a state-forming group;

· all national and religious privileges were abolished;

· the free development of national minorities and ethno-geographical groups was proclaimed, which constituted the theoretical and legal basis of the Jewish ethnic group, that is, it has the right to be equated with the oppressed nations Russian Empire, regardless of class division, Jews received all rights, which meant full rights regardless of social class affiliation.

This document meant, in essence, that the Bolsheviks distanced themselves from national policy The Provisional Government and Tsarism, he marked the beginning of falsification. (It was proclaimed that tsarism set peoples against each other, the results of which were pogroms and massacres, the slavery of peoples, and the policies of the Provisional Government were distrusted). This document also showed a complementary approach to all peoples (all are equal, all nations). The main drawback of the Declaration of the Rights of Peoples was that the Bolsheviks did not specify the form of the state; it only said “an honest and voluntary union of peoples.”

Another document of the Soviet government was Peace Decree , it had 4 main provisions:

· 3-month truce;

· participation of all peoples in the conclusion of peace;

· a democratic world without winners and losers, without annexations and indemnities;

· rejection of secret diplomacy.

Two principles of relations between peoples were proclaimed: equality and self-determination. The point about annexation is interesting, because it legal basis the collapse of the Russian state and the entire system of international relations, since annexation was understood as any annexation by a large and strong state of a weak or small nationality without its clear, precise, voluntary consent or desires, regardless of when it was committed. This also meant a split in the Russian ethnic group, since Russian workers and peasants are the bearers of the idea of a democratic world, and Russian landowners wanted to expand their territories. The Decree on Peace also had an anti-Russian orientation, since secret diplomacy contributed to the expansion of the Great Russians.

Another document that appeared in the period October-November 1917 and was of a national character is Appeal to working Muslims of Russia and the East :

· freedom of beliefs, customs and national cult institutions

· secret agreements of the overthrown king on the capture of Constantinople were destroyed

· the agreement on the division of Turkey and the taking away of Armenia from it was torn and destroyed. As soon as hostilities cease, Armenians will be guaranteed the right to freely determine their political destiny

· rupture of the treaty on the division of Persia, withdrawal of troops

main idea document - the October Revolution brings liberation to the peoples of the East. The falsification of the policy of tsarism continued (it was said that mosques were being destroyed, etc., and the basic principles of the national policy of tsarism were proclaimed as conquests October revolution); the approach to the foreign policy course of tsarism was critical.

Since the 16th and 17th centuries, the borders of the Russian state began to steadily expand in different directions. There were many reasons for this, and they were not uniform. The movement of Russians in the western, southwestern, and then eastern directions was dictated by the need to return and reunite former territories and related peoples Ancient Rus' into a single state, the imperial policy of protecting the Orthodox peoples inhabiting them from national and religious oppression, as well as the natural geopolitical desire to gain access to the sea and secure the borders of their possessions.

The annexation of the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates (in 1552 and 1556, respectively) occurred for completely different reasons. Russia did not at all seek to seize these former Horde territories (with whose governments it immediately established diplomatic relations), since doing this after the collapse of the Horde was not particularly difficult, both for Ivan III and Vasily III, and young Ivan IV. However, this for a long time did not happen, since representatives of the Kasimov dynasty, friendly to Russia, were in power in the khanates at that time. When representatives of this dynasty were defeated by their competitors and a pro-Ottoman Crimean dynasty was established in Kazan (which by that time had become one of the centers of the slave trade) and Astrakhan, only then was a political decision made about the need to include these lands into Russia. The Astrakhan Khanate, by the way, was bloodlessly included in the Russian state.

In 1555, the Great Nogai Horde and the Siberian Khanate entered Russia's sphere of influence as vassals. Russian people come to the Urals, gain access to the Caspian Sea and the Caucasus. Most of the peoples of the Volga region and North Caucasus, with the exception of part of the Nogais (small Nogais, who migrated in 1557 and founded the Little Nogai Horde in the Kuban, from where they harassed the population of the Russian borders with periodic raids), submitted to Russia. Russia included the lands where the Chuvash, Udmurts, Mordovians, Mari, Bashkirs and many others lived. In the Caucasus were installed friendly relations with Circassians and Kabardians, other peoples of the North Caucasus and Transcaucasia. The entire Volga region, and therefore the entire Volga trade route, became Russian territories, on which new Russian cities immediately appeared: Ufa (1574), Samara (1586), Tsaritsyn (1589), Saratov (1590).

The entry of these lands into the empire did not lead to any discrimination or oppression of the ethnic groups inhabiting them. Within the empire, they fully preserved their religious, national and cultural identity, traditional way of life, as well as management systems. And most of them reacted to this very calmly: after all, the Moscow state was part of the Dzhuchiev ulus for a significant time, and Russia, which had adopted the experience of managing these lands accumulated by the Horde and was actively implementing it in the implementation of its internal imperial policy, was perceived by them as the natural heir to the Mongol proto-empire.

The subsequent advance of the Russians into Siberia was also not due to any national super-task and government policy development of these lands. V.L. Makhnach explained the development of Siberia, which began in the 16th century, by two factors: first, the aggressive policy of the Siberian Khan Kuchum, who carried out constant raids on Stroganov’s possessions; secondly, the tyrannical rule of Ivan IV, fleeing whose repressions the Russian people fled to Siberia.

In the Siberian Khanate, which was formed around 1495 and which, in addition to the Siberian Tatars, included the Khanty (Ostyaks), Mansi (Voguls), Trans-Ural Bashkirs and other ethnic groups, there was a constant struggle for power between two dynasties - the Taibungs and the Sheibanids. In 1555, Khan Taibungin Ediger turned to Ivan IV with a request for citizenship, which was granted, after which the Siberian khans began to pay tribute to the Moscow government. In 1563, power in the Khanate was seized by Sheibanid Kuchum, who initially maintained vassalage relations with Russia, but later, taking advantage of the turmoil in the Russian state in 1572 after the Crimean Khan's raid on Moscow, broke off these relations and began to pursue a fairly aggressive policy towards the border lands of the Russian states.

The constant raids of Khan Kuchum prompted the eminent and wealthy trading people Stroganovs to organize a private military expedition to protect the borders of their possessions. They hire Cossacks led by Ataman Ermak Timofeevich, arm them, and they, in turn, unexpectedly defeat Khan Kuchum in 1581-1582, who, by the way, had established diplomatic relations with Moscow and seize the capital Khanate of Siberia- Isker. The Cossacks, of course, could not solve the problem of settling and developing these lands, and perhaps they would have soon left Siberia, but a stream of fugitive Russian people poured into these lands, fleeing the repressions of Ivan the Terrible, who began to actively develop the sparsely populated new lands.

The Russians did not encounter much resistance in the development of Siberia. The Siberian Khanate was internally fragile and soon found itself annexed to Russia. Kuchum's military failures led to the resumption of civil strife in his camp. A number of Khanty and Mansi princes and elders began to provide assistance to Ermak with food, as well as pay yasak to the Moscow sovereign. The elders of the indigenous Siberian peoples were extremely pleased with the reduction in the size of the yasak that the Russians collected compared to the yasak that Kuchum took. And since there was a lot of free land in Siberia (you could walk a hundred or two hundred kilometers without meeting anyone), there was enough space for everyone (both Russian explorers and indigenous ethnic groups, most of whom were in homeostasis (the relict phase of ethnogenesis), which means , did not interfere with each other), the development of the territory proceeded at a rapid pace. In 1591, Khan Kuchum was finally defeated by Russian troops and submitted to the Russian sovereign. The fall of the Siberian Khanate, the only more or less strong state in these expanses, predetermined the further advance of the Russians across the Siberian lands and the development of the expanses of eastern Eurasia. Without encountering organized resistance, Russian explorers during the 17th century easily and quickly overcame and developed lands from the Urals to the Pacific Ocean, gaining a foothold in Siberia and the Far East.

The abundance and wealth of the Siberian lands in animals, furs, precious metals and raw materials, their sparse population and their remoteness from administrative centers, and therefore from the authorities and the possible arbitrariness of officials, attracted them a large number of passionaries. Looking for "will" and better life on new lands they actively explored new spaces, moving through the forests of Siberia and without going beyond the river valleys, a landscape familiar to Russian people. Even rivers (natural geopolitical barriers) could no longer stop the pace of Russian advance to the East of Eurasia. Having overcome the Irtysh and Ob, the Russians reached the Yenisei and Angara, reached the shores of Lake Baikal, mastered the Lena basin and, reaching the Pacific Ocean, began exploring the Far East.

Coming to new, sparsely populated territories, explorers (mostly, initially Cossacks), interacting with the small local population, creating and equipping developed systems of forts (fortified settlements), gradually secured these lands for themselves. Following the pioneers, near the forts, whose garrisons needed to provide them with food and fodder, in fact complete absence routes for their delivery, peasants settled and settled. Mastering new forms of land cultivation, features of economic activity everyday life, Russians actively interacted with local residents, in turn, sharing with the latter own experience, including agricultural ones. In the vastness of Siberia, new Russian fortified cities began to appear one after another: Tyumen (1586), Tobolsk (1587), Berezov and Surgut (1593), Tara (1594), Mangazeya (1601), Tomsk (1604), Yeniseisk (1619) , Krasnoyarsk (1628), Yakutsk (1632), Okhotsk (1648), Irkutsk (1652).

In 1639, the Cossacks, led by I.Yu. Moskvitin reached the shores Sea of Okhotsk. In 1643-1645, the expedition of V.D. Poyarkov and in 1648-1649 the expedition of E.P. Khabarov went to the Zeya River, and then to the Amur. From this moment, the active development of the Amur region began. Here the Russians encountered the Jurchens (Manchus), who paid tribute to the Qing Empire and retained a sufficient level of passion to stop the advance of the few explorers. As a result of several military campaigns, the Treaty of Nerchinsk (1689) was concluded between the Qing Empire and Russia. Expedition S.I. Dezhnev, moving along the Arctic Ocean along a different route in 1648, leaving the mouth of the Kolyma River, reached the shores of Anadyr, discovering the strait separating Asia from North America, and therefore a passage from the Arctic to the Pacific Ocean. In 1696 V.V. Atlasov carried out an expedition to Kamchatka. The migration of the Russian population led to the fact that Russia became an extremely vast, but sparsely populated country in which the shortage of population became very important factor, which subsequently affected the course of development of Russian history.

Contacts and interaction of Russian explorers with the local population took place in different ways: in some places there were armed clashes between explorers and aborigines (for example, at first in relations with the Buryats and Yakuts; however, the misunderstandings that arose were eliminated and did not acquire the nature of established interethnic enmity) ; but for the most part - the voluntary and willing submission of the local population, the search and requests for Russian help and their protection from stronger and more warlike neighbors. The Russians, having brought with them firm state power to Siberia, tried to take into account the interests of local residents, without encroaching on their traditions, beliefs, way of life, actively implementing the basic principle of internal imperial national policy - protecting small ethnic groups from oppression and extermination by larger ethnic groups. For example, the Russians actually saved the Evenks (Tungus) from extermination by the Yakuts, a larger ethnic group; stopped a series of bloody civil strife among the Yakuts themselves; eliminated the feudal anarchy that took place among the Buryats and most Siberian Tatars. The payment for ensuring the peaceful existence of these peoples was a fur tribute (not very burdensome, by the way - one or two sables a year); At the same time, it is characteristic that the payment of yasak was considered a sovereign service, for which the person who handed over the yasak received the sovereign's salary - knives, saws, axes, needles, fabrics. Moreover, foreigners who paid yasak had a number of privileges: for example, in the implementation of a special legal procedure in relation to them, as “yasak” people. Of course, given the remoteness from the center, some abuses by explorers periodically occurred, as well as arbitrariness of local governors, but these were local, isolated cases that did not become systematic and did not in any way affect the establishment of friendly and good-neighborly relations between the Russians and the local population.

Sergey Elishev

Since the 16th and 17th centuries, the borders of the Russian state began to steadily expand in different directions. There were many reasons for this, and they were not uniform. The movement of Russians in the western, southwestern, and then eastern directions was dictated by the need to return, reunite the former territories and related peoples of Ancient Rus' into a single state, the imperial policy of protecting the Orthodox peoples inhabiting them from national and religious oppression, as well as the natural geopolitical desire to gain access to the sea and secure the borders of their possessions.

The annexation of the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates (in 1552 and 1556, respectively) occurred for completely different reasons. Russia did not at all strive to seize these former Horde territories (with whose governments it immediately established diplomatic relations), since doing this after the collapse of the Horde was not particularly difficult, both for Ivan III, Vasily III, and the young Ivan IV . However, this did not happen for a long time, since representatives of the Kasimov dynasty, friendly to Russia, were in power in the khanates at that time. When representatives of this dynasty were defeated by their competitors and a pro-Ottoman Crimean dynasty was established in Kazan (which by that time had become one of the centers of the slave trade) and Astrakhan, only then was a political decision made about the need to include these lands into Russia. The Astrakhan Khanate, by the way, was bloodlessly included in the Russian state.

In 1555, the Great Nogai Horde and the Siberian Khanate entered Russia's sphere of influence as vassals. Russian people come to the Urals, gain access to the Caspian Sea and the Caucasus. Most of the peoples of the Volga region and the North Caucasus, with the exception of part of the Nogais (Little Nogais, who in 1557 migrated and founded the Little Nogai Horde in the Kuban, from where they harassed the population of the Russian borders with periodic raids), submitted to Russia. Russia included the lands where the Chuvash, Udmurts, Mordovians, Mari, Bashkirs and many others lived. In the Caucasus, friendly relations were established with the Circassians and Kabardians, and other peoples of the North Caucasus and Transcaucasia. The entire Volga region, and therefore the entire Volga trade route, became Russian territories, on which new Russian cities immediately appeared: Ufa (1574), Samara (1586), Tsaritsyn (1589), Saratov (1590).

The subsequent advance of the Russians into Siberia was also not due to any national overarching goal or state policy of developing these lands. V.L. Makhnach explained the development of Siberia, which began in the 16th century, by two factors: first, the aggressive policy of the Siberian Khan Kuchum, who carried out constant raids on Stroganov’s possessions; secondly, the tyrannical rule of Ivan IV, fleeing whose repressions the Russian people fled to Siberia.

The constant raids of Khan Kuchum prompted the eminent and wealthy trading people Stroganovs to organize a private military expedition to protect the borders of their possessions. They hire Cossacks led by Ataman Ermak Timofeevich, arm them, and they, in turn, unexpectedly defeat Khan Kuchum in 1581-1582, who, by the way, had established diplomatic relations with Moscow and seize the capital of the Siberian Khanate - Isker. The Cossacks, of course, could not solve the problem of settling and developing these lands, and perhaps they would have soon left Siberia, but a stream of fugitive Russian people poured into these lands, fleeing the repressions of Ivan the Terrible, who began to actively develop the sparsely populated new lands.

The abundance and wealth of the Siberian lands in animals, furs, precious metals and raw materials, their sparse population and their remoteness from administrative centers, and therefore from the authorities and the possible arbitrariness of officials, attracted a large number of passionaries to them. Looking for “freedom” and a better life in new lands, they actively explored new spaces, moving through the forests of Siberia and without going beyond the river valleys, a landscape familiar to Russian people. Even rivers (natural geopolitical barriers) could no longer stop the pace of Russian advance to the East of Eurasia. Having overcome the Irtysh and Ob, the Russians reached the Yenisei and Angara, reached the shores of Lake Baikal, mastered the Lena basin and, reaching the Pacific Ocean, began exploring the Far East.

Coming to new, sparsely populated territories, explorers (mostly, initially Cossacks), interacting with the small local population, creating and equipping developed systems of forts (fortified settlements), gradually secured these lands for themselves. Following the pioneers, peasants settled and settled near the forts, whose garrisons needed to provide them with food and fodder, in the virtually complete absence of delivery routes. Mastering new forms of land cultivation and the peculiarities of conducting economic activities in everyday life, the Russians actively interacted with local residents, in turn, sharing with the latter their own experience, including agricultural experience. In the vastness of Siberia, new Russian fortified cities began to appear one after another: Tyumen (1586), Tobolsk (1587), Berezov and Surgut (1593), Tara (1594), Mangazeya (1601), Tomsk (1604), Yeniseisk (1619) , Krasnoyarsk (1628), Yakutsk (1632), Okhotsk (1648), Irkutsk (1652).

In 1639, the Cossacks, led by I.Yu. Moskvitin reached the shores of the Sea of Okhotsk. In 1643-1645, the expedition of V.D. Poyarkov and in 1648-1649 the expedition of E.P. Khabarov went to the Zeya River, and then to the Amur. From this moment, the active development of the Amur region began. Here the Russians encountered the Jurchens (Manchus), who paid tribute to the Qing Empire and retained a sufficient level of passion to stop the advance of the few explorers. As a result of several military campaigns, the Treaty of Nerchinsk (1689) was concluded between the Qing Empire and Russia. Expedition S.I. Dezhnev, moving along the Arctic Ocean along a different route in 1648, leaving the mouth of the Kolyma River, reached the shores of Anadyr, discovering the strait separating Asia from North America, and therefore the passage from the Arctic to the Pacific Ocean. In 1696 V.V. Atlasov carried out an expedition to Kamchatka. The migration of the Russian population led to the fact that Russia became an extremely vast, but sparsely populated country, in which the shortage of population became a very important factor that subsequently affected the course of development of Russian history.

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At the eastern and southern borders of the country there were fragments of the Golden Horde - the Kazan, Astrakhan, Crimean and Siberian khanates. The first result of the military expansion of the young king was the conquest of lands Kazan Khanate and taking Kazan. The campaign against Kazan was undertaken after the local army was strengthened and new types of armed forces were created. After a stubborn struggle, in October 1552, the capital of the Kazan Khanate was taken by Russian troops. As a result, the fertile lands of the Volga region became part of the Moscow state, which made it possible for the tsar to provide significant land grants to his servants and thereby increase the number of local troops. To manage this region, a special Kazan order . In honor of the victory, the Russian architects Postnik and Barma built the Cathedral of the Intercession-on-Don (St. Basil's Cathedral) in Moscow.

IN 1556 the tsarist troops managed to take almost without a fight Astrakhan. From this time on, the Volga became a great Russian river and the most important trade route of the Moscow state. During the same period, the Bashkirs voluntarily joined Russia: Great Nagai Horde , wandering between the Volga and the Urals, recognized dependence on Moscow. Thus, the territory of the Moscow state expanded up to Ural mountains what created favorable conditions for the further development by Russians of the spaces of Siberia.

By the end of the reign of Ivan the Terrible, Russian troops began to conquer Western Siberia. Colonization occurred gradually, but persistently and steadily. The activities of Russian industrialists, for example, the Stroganov family, who were granted the privilege of maintaining their troops by the Tsar, played a major role. The detachment of Cossacks they recruited under the leadership Ermak went to conquer Siberia and October 1582 captured the capital of the Siberian Khanate Isker. IN 1598 voivode Danila Chulkov captured the Siberian Khan, and from that time on the Russian Tsar began to add the words “Tsar of Siberia” to his title.

11. Time of Troubles in Rus' (main stages).

Causes:

1. Heavy systemic crisis Moscow state, largely associated with the reign of Ivan the Terrible. Conflicting domestic and foreign policies led to the destruction of many economic structures. Weakened key institutions and led to loss of life.

2. Important things were lost western lands(yama, Ivangorod, Karela)

3. Sharply escalated social conflicts within the Moscow state, which covered all societies (tsarist

power and boyar aristocracy, boyars and nobles, feudal lords and peasantry, church and secular feudal lords, tribal

aristocracy and serving aristocracy, etc.)

4. Intervention of foreign states (Poland, Sweden, England, etc. regarding land issues, territory and

5. Dynastic crisis:

1584. - After the death of Ivan the Terrible, the throne was taken by his son Fedor.

1591. - Under mysterious circumstances, the youngest son of the formidable, Dmitry, died in Uglich.

1598 - Fyodor dies, the dynasty of the house of Kalita is ended.

Stages:

The key figure is Boris Godunov. By decision of the Zemsky Sobor, he was elected to the royal throne in 1598. He was known as a cruel politician, was a guardsman, and had an extraordinary mind. With his active participation, the patriarchate was established in Moscow in 1598. He dramatically changed the nature of the internal and foreign policy states (development of the southern outskirts, development of Siberia, return of western lands, truce with Poland). Consequently, there is a rise in the economy and an intensification of the political struggle. In 1601 - 1603, the harvest failed, famine and food riots began. During this period, the first False Dmitry appeared on the territory of Poland, received the support of the Polish gentry and entered Russian land in 1604. In April 1605, Godunov died unexpectedly. In June, False Dmitry 1 entered Moscow. 11 months later, in 1606

he was killed as a result of a conspiracy.

This stage is associated with Vasily Shuisky, the first “boyar tsar”. He ascended the throne immediately after the death of False Dmitry 1 by decision of Red Square, giving a cross-kissing record about his good attitude towards the boyars. On the throne he faced many problems (Bolotnikov's uprising, LD2, Polish troops, the collapse of the SU, famine). Shuisky managed to solve only part of the problems. In 1610, Polish troops defeated Shuisky's troops and he was overthrown from the throne and the regime of the seven-boyars was established; the boyars wanted to invite the Polish prince Vladislav to the throne, guaranteeing the inviolability of the faith and the boyars, and also for him to change his faith. The church protested this, and there was no answer from Poland.

Patriarch Hermogenes in 1611 initiated the creation of a zemstvo militia near Ryazan. In March it besieged Moscow and failed due to internal divisions. The second was created in the fall, in Novgorod. It was headed by K. Minin and D. Pozharsky. The money raised was not sufficient to support the militia, but not small. The militia called themselves free people, headed by the zemstvo council and temporary orders. On October 26, 1612, the militia managed to take the Moscow Kremlin. By decision of the boyar duma, it was dissolved.

Results:

1. Total number dead equal to one third of the population.

2. Economic catastrophe, the financial system and transport communications have been destroyed, vast territories have been taken out of agricultural circulation.

3. Territorial losses (Chernigov land, Smolensk land, Novgorod-Seversk land, Baltic

territory).

4. Weakening of domestic merchants and entrepreneurs and strengthening of foreign merchants.

5. The emergence of a new royal dynasty On February 7, 1613, the Zemsky Sobor elected 16-year-old Mikhail Romanov. First

representatives of the dynasty (M.F. Romanov 1613–1645, A.M. Romanov 1645–1676, F.A. Romanov 1676–1682).

They had to solve 3 main problems: restoration of the unity of the territories, restoration of the state mechanism and economy.

Originated in the middle of the 15th century. As a result of the fragmentation of the Golden Horde, the Kazan Khanate united under its rule the peoples of the Middle Volga region and the Urals - the Tatars, Udmurts, Mari, Chuvash, and part of the Bashkirs. The peoples of the Middle Volga region, who have lived here for a long time, more or less inherited ancient culture Volga Bulgaria. In the fertile regions of the Volga region, agriculture, beekeeping and hunting were developed. fur-bearing animal. The land belonged to the state. The khans distributed it to their vassals, who collected taxes from the population. Part of the land belonged to mosques. The main tax was food rent (kharaj); tithes went to the clergy. In the economy of the feudal lords, the labor of captive slaves was widely used. The situation of the Mordovians, Chuvash and Mari, who had to pay a large tribute, was more difficult. In the multinational Kazan Khanate, social and national contradictions were intertwined. The Kazan rulers saw a way out of them by organizing attacks on more developed Russian lands with the aim of robbery and capturing slave captives. Lack of developed urban life (except large center transit trade - Kazan) also pushed for attacks on neighbors.
In the 30s - 40s of the 16th century. In the Kazan Khanate there were several significant popular uprisings against the feudal rulers. There was no unity among the Kazan feudal lords themselves: despite the orientation of most of them towards Crimea and Turkey, some feudal lords sought to develop political ties with the Russian state, with which Kazan supported trade.
Already in the mid-40s of the 16th century. The Chuvash and Mari were liberated from the power of the Kazan Khanate and became part of the Russian state.

Preparing for the trip to Kazan

By the middle of the 16th century. A strong coalition of Muslim sovereigns, which arose after the collapse of the Golden Horde and united by the influence and support of Sultan Turkey, acted against the Russian state.
The fight against external danger again arose as a primary, most important task, on the resolution of which the existence and development of the newly emerged united Russian state depended.
The entire second half of the 40s was spent in diplomatic and military attempts to achieve the elimination of the source of aggression in Kazan, either by restoring its vassalage, which could be achieved by establishing a supporter of Moscow in Kazan, or by conquering Kazan. But these attempts were unsuccessful. Moscow's protege Shah Ali failed to hold out in Kazan, and two campaigns of Russian troops in 1547 - 1548 and 1549 - 1950 were unsuccessful.
At the turn of the 50s, preparations began for a decisive blow to Kazan. The preference for military defeat over diplomatic solutions to this problem was associated with the need for land for the nobles. The Kazan Khanate with its “sub-district land” (Peresvetov’s expression) attracted service people. The capture of Kazan was also important for the development of trade - it opened the way along the Volga to the countries of the East, which so attracted Europeans in the sixteenth century with their riches.

Capture of Kazan

In the spring of 1551, on the right bank of the Volga, opposite Kazan, a wooden fortress of Sviyazhsk, pre-cut down and lowered down the river, was erected, which became a stronghold for conducting military operations against Kazan.
Russia's attack on Kazan alarmed the Turkish-Tatar coalition. By order of the Sultan, the Crimean Khan Devlet-Girey struck from the south, intending to invade the central regions of Russia and thereby disrupt Russia's offensive on Kazan. But Moscow foresaw the possibility of such an attack and stationed troops in the Kashira-Kolomna area on the ancient Oka line. The Crimean Khan went back. In the second half of 1552, one hundred and fifty thousand Russian army, headed by Ivan IV, princes A. M. Kurbsky, M. I. Vorotynsky and others, besieged Kazan. To destroy the walls of the Kazan Kremlin, according to the plans of Ivan Vyrodkov, mine tunnels and siege devices were built. As a result of the assault on October 2, 1552, Kazan was taken.

Mastering the Volga route

This was followed by the annexation of Bashkiria to Russia. In 1556 Astrakhan was taken. In 1557, Murza Ismail, the head of the Great Nogai Horde, swore allegiance to the Russian state. His opponents migrated with part of the Nogai to Kuban and became vassals of the Crimean Khan. The entire Volga has now become Russian. This was a huge success for the Russian state. In addition to eliminating dangerous hotbeds of aggression in the East, the victory over Kazan and Astrakhan opened up the possibility of developing new lands and developing trade with the countries of the East. This victory was the biggest event for contemporaries; it inspired the creation of a masterpiece of Russian and world architecture - the famous Intercession Cathedral on Red Square in Moscow, known as St. Basil's.

B.A. Rybakov - “History of the USSR from ancient times to the end of the 18th century.” - M., “ graduate School", 1975.