Political, social and economic structure of the ancient Russian state. Political system and social structure of the ancient Russian state

Like other states of this type, Kiev Rus' IX-X centuries did not represent a monolithic whole, but was a mechanical connection of lands with different levels of economic and cultural development. In some of them, local princely dynasties were preserved: among the Drevlyans - until the middle of the 10th century, among the Vyatichi and Radimichi - until the beginning of the 11th century. The Polotsk land retained its identity and independence.

The head of the Old Russian state was the Grand Duke of Kiev. In his name, treaties between Rus' and other countries were concluded; his power was supreme. From the agreements with the Greeks it follows that “under the hand” of the Russian Grand Duke were the “bright and great princes” who sat in major cities Rus', and the “great boyars”. These were representatives of local princes and the old “deliberate child”. Like the Kyiv prince, they had their own courts, their own squads, and sent their ambassadors as part of national embassies when concluding treaties with foreign states.

The local agricultural nobility, together with the highest layer of the princely squad, constituted the environment that, together with the prince, ruled the state.

Struggling to strengthen their power, the Kyiv princes sought to remove the local “princes” from governing certain regions and replace them with their proteges. Olga took a decisive step in this regard. She abolished tribal kingdoms and installed her own administration everywhere. It is noteworthy that in the treaty of Svyatoslav with the Greeks (972) there are no longer “bright and great princes” sitting “under the hand” of the Kyiv prince. It speaks only about the boyars - “who are the essence of Rus' under me, the boyars and others.” The “Bright and Grand Dukes” became the boyars of the Kyiv prince. Under Vladimir as assistants, in major centers His sons sat in Rus'. It strengthened internal communications Old Russian state.

With the formation of the state, the army became a part not of the people's militia, but of the apparatus of state power.

The main role under the prince was played by the squad surrounding him. He went hiking with her; captured and divided the spoils, brought new lands under his rule, and collected tribute. The prince's servants and assistants in managing his household and state came from the druzhina environment.

The squad was sharply divided into two parts (layers) - the senior squad (boyars, princely men) and the younger squad (gridi, youths, children). The senior squad, consisting of the most noble representatives of the nobility, as well as advanced warriors, was the prince’s closest circle. The most important matters - military and internal - were decided by the Kiev prince in council with the senior squad. With her, he “thought about the earthly system and about the army and about the charter of the earthly women. The prince had to take into account the opinion of the squad. In case of disagreement with the prince, the squad could refuse to participate in one or another enterprise of the prince.

The social status of the senior warrior, according to Russian Pravda, is characterized by the fact that 80 hryvnia were exacted for murder, and only 40 hryvnia for a gridi or swordsman.

The most prominent of the senior warriors, such as Sveneld, had their own squad under Igor and went on campaigns with their own armed forces.

Representatives of the senior squad were entrusted with essential functions state, patrimonial and princely administration.

The main source of material support for the warriors at first was military booty and especially tribute, which the prince shared with his servants. The largest of them received from the prince the right to collect tribute from vast areas in their favor.

The population subject to the prince was obliged to pay him tribute. The oldest type of tribute collection was polyudye. The prince, together with his retinue, traveled around the lands of his household and collected tribute from them. Its size was determined by the needs of the prince and his squad, which, of course, could not but give rise to conflicts between the prince and the population. A striking example of polyudia is Igor’s campaign for tribute in the Drevlyan land, which cost him his life. Under Olga, the collection of tribute was streamlined. Tribute norms were established - “lessons” and administrative and financial management centers were created. These centers were some “cemeteries” and “places” (villages). Here were the princely men who were in charge of collecting tribute, court fees and administering justice on the basis of “Russian law.” Tribute was brought here by the population of the surrounding area. The tribute was collected from the “smoke” or “rala” (plough), that is, from an individual farm.

In addition to tribute, the population contributed to the state various kinds duties. It was obliged to participate in military campaigns, deliver supplies, build fortresses, etc.

The Old Russian state had large military forces. They consisted, on the one hand, of a professional army - the squad of the prince and the squads of his vassals, and on the other hand - of the people's militia "warriors". The howls were an undoubted remnant of the times of military democracy, when the army consisted of the entire armed people. As feudal relations developed, the importance of the people's militia steadily declined. But in the early feudal period, the howls constituted a large, perhaps the main, force of the Kyiv army. The Voy were an irregular army, recruited as needed. The warriors fought on horseback, while the warriors formed a foot army.

The army of the Old Russian state was organized according to the decimal system. It was divided into thousands, hundreds, tens. The commanders of these units bore the corresponding names: ten's, sot's, thousand's. The head of all military forces of the state was the prince.

The armament of the ancient Russian army consisted of swords, sabers, spears, battle axes, iron arrows, and long forged shields. The warriors had metal helmets, the nobility wore steel chain mail. A witness to the struggle of the Greeks with Svyatoslav, Leo the Deacon, reports that the Rus had throwing weapons that fired stones.

Along with the ground forces, the Rus had a large navy, with the help of which they undertook bold sea ​​voyages across the Black, Azov and Caspian seas. The Old Russian fleet consisted of ships hollowed out of large trees and lined with boards along the sides.

• INTRODUCTION
• 1. THE EMERGENCE OF THE ANCIENT RUSSIAN STATE
• 2. SOCIAL SYSTEM OF THE ANCIENT RUSSIAN STATE
• 3. STATE AND POLITICAL SYSTEM OF THE ANCIENT RUSSIAN STATE
• CONCLUSION
• BIBLIOGRAPHY
• INTRODUCTION
• The moment of the emergence of the Old Russian state cannot be dated with sufficient accuracy. Obviously, there was a gradual development of those political formations mentioned above into a feudal state Eastern Slavs- Old Russian Kievan State Most historians agree that the emergence of the Old Russian state should be dated back to the 9th century.
• In the 9th century. East Slavic states, primarily Kiev and Novgorod (these names are already replacing the old Kuyavia and Slavia), are increasingly drawn into international trade that took place across waterway"from the Varangians to the Greeks." This route, which ran through the lands of several East Slavic peoples, contributed to their rapprochement.
• How did ancient Russian statehood emerge? The Tale of Bygone Years reports that at first the southern Slavic tribes paid tribute to the Khazars, and the northern ones to the Varangians, so that the latter drove out the Varangians, but then changed their minds and called on the Varangian princes. This decision was caused by the fact that the Slavs fought among themselves and decided to turn to foreign princes to establish peace and order, seeing them as arbiters to settle disputes that arose. It was then that the chronicler “uttered the famous phrase: “Our land is great and abundant, but there is no order (order) in it. Let him reign and rule over us." The Varangian princes allegedly did not agree at first, but then accepted the invitation. Three Varangian princes came to Rus' and in 862 sat on the thrones: Rurik - in Novgorod, Truvor - in Izborsk (not far from Pskov), Sineus - in Beloozero.This event is considered to be the starting point in the history of Russian statehood.
• The evidence from the annals itself does not raise objections, but in the 18th century. German historians working at the Russian Academy of Sciences interpreted them in such a way as to prove the legitimacy of the dominance of the German nobility at the then Russian imperial court, moreover, to justify the inability of the Russian people to be creative state life both in the past and in the present, its “chronic” political and cultural backwardness.
• In addition to the Slavs, the Old Russian Kievan state included some neighboring Finnish and Baltic tribes. This state, therefore, from the very beginning was ethnically heterogeneous - on the contrary, multinational, multiethnic, but its basis was the Old Russian nationality, which is the cradle of three Slavic peoples - Russians (Great Russians), Ukrainians and Belarusians. It cannot be identified with any of these peoples separately.
• The purpose of the work is to consider the political system of the Old Russian state.
• To achieve this goal, we will define the tasks of the work:

Cover the emergence of the Old Russian state;

Describe the social system of the Old Russian state;

Explain the state and political system of the Old Russian state.

1. THE EMERGENCE OF THE ANCIENT RUSSIAN STATE

The moment of the emergence of the Old Russian state cannot be determined with sufficient accuracy. Obviously, there was a gradual development of those political formations that we talked about earlier into the feudal state of the Eastern Slavs - the Old Russian state. In the literature, this event is dated differently by different historians. However, most authors agree that the emergence of the Old Russian state should be attributed to the 9th century.

The question of how this state was formed is not entirely clear. And here we are faced with the so-called Norman theory.

The fact is that we have at our disposal a source that, it would seem, to some extent answers the question about the origin of the Old Russian state. This is the oldest chronicle collection "The Tale of Bygone Years". The chronicle makes it clear that in the 9th century. our ancestors lived in conditions of statelessness, although this is not directly stated in the Tale. We are only talking about the fact that the southern Slavic tribes paid tribute to the Khazars, and the northern ones to the Varangians, that the northern tribes once drove out the Varangians, but then changed their minds and called the Varangian princes to themselves. This decision was caused by the fact that the Slavs fought among themselves and decided to turn to foreign princes to establish order. It was then that it was said famous phrase: “Our land is great and abundant, but there is no decoration in it. May you come and reign over us.” The Varangian princes came to Rus' and in 862 sat on the thrones: Rurik - in Novgorod, Truvor - in Izborsk (not far from Pskov), Sineus - in Beloozero.

This interpretation causes, according to at least, two objections. Firstly, the factual material presented in The Tale of Bygone Years does not provide grounds for the conclusion that the Russian state was created by calling the Varangians. On the contrary, like other sources that have come down to us, it says that statehood among the Eastern Slavs existed even before the Varangians. Secondly, modern science cannot agree with such a primitive explanation complex process formation of any state. The state cannot be organized by one person or several even the most outstanding men. The state is a product of the complex and long development of the social structure of society. Nevertheless, the chronicle mention in a certain sense was adopted back in the 18th century. This is how the notorious Norman theory of the origin of the Old Russian state was born.

Already at that time, Normanism met with objections from advanced Russian scientists, among whom was M.V. Lomonosov. Since then, all historians studying Ancient Russia have been divided into two camps - Normanists and anti-Normanists.

Modern domestic scientists predominantly reject the Norman theory. They are joined by the largest foreign researchers of Slavic countries. However certain part Foreign authors still preach this theory, although not in such a primitive form as was done previously.

The main refutation of the Norman theory is quite high level social and political development Eastern Slavs in the 9th century. The Old Russian state was prepared by the centuries-old development of the Eastern Slavs. In terms of their economic and political level, the Slavs were higher than the Varangians, so they could not borrow state experience from the newcomers.

The chronicle story contains, of course, elements of truth. It is possible that the Slavs invited several princes with their squads as military specialists, as was done in later times in Rus' and in Western Europe. It is reliably known that the Russian principalities invited squads not only of the Varangians, but also of their steppe neighbors - the Pechenegs, Karakalpaks, and Torks. However, it was not the Varangian princes who organized the Old Russian state, but the already existing state that gave them the corresponding government posts. However, some authors, starting with M.V. Lomonosov, doubt the Varangian origin of Rurik, Sineus and Truvor, believing that they could also be representatives of some Slavic tribes. In any case, there are practically no traces of Varangian culture in the history of our Motherland. Scientists, for example, have calculated that per 10 thousand square meters. km of Russian territory, only five Scandinavian geographical names can be found, while in England, which the Normans conquered, this number reaches 150.

We do not know exactly when and how exactly the first principalities of the Eastern Slavs arose, preceding the formation of the Old Russian state, but in any case they existed until 862, before the notorious “calling of the Varangians.” In German chronicles, already from 839, Russian princes were called Khakans - kings.

But the moment of unification of the East Slavic lands into one state is known with certainty. In 882, the Novgorod prince Oleg captured Kyiv and united the two most important groups of Russian lands; then he managed to annex the rest of the Russian lands, creating a huge state for those times.

The Russian Orthodox Church is trying to link the emergence of statehood in Rus' with the introduction of Christianity.

Of course, the baptism of Rus' had great importance to strengthen the feudal state, fortunately the church sanctified the subordination of Christians to the exploitative state. However, the baptism occurred no less than a century after the formation of the Kievan state, not to mention the earlier East Slavic states.

In addition to the Slavs, the Old Russian state also included some neighboring Finnish and Baltic tribes. This state was thus ethnically heterogeneous from the very beginning. However, its basis was the Old Russian people, which was the cradle of three Slavic peoples - Russians (Great Russians), Ukrainians and Belarusians. It cannot be identified with any of these peoples separately. Even before the revolution, Ukrainian nationalists tried to portray the Old Russian state as Ukrainian. This idea has been picked up in our time in nationalist circles, trying to quarrel the three fraternal Slavic peoples. Meanwhile, the Old Russian state did not coincide either in territory or in population with modern Ukraine; they only had common capital- city of Kyiv. In the 9th and even 12th centuries. It is still impossible to talk about specifically Ukrainian culture, language, etc. All this will appear later, when, due to objective historical processes, the Old Russian people split into three independent branches.

2. SOCIAL SYSTEM OF THE ANCIENT RUSSIAN STATE

The social structure of the Old Russian state was complex, but the main features of feudal relations already emerged quite clearly. Feudal ownership of land was formed - the economic basis of feudalism. Accordingly, the main classes of feudal society took shape - feudal lords and feudal-dependent peasants.

The largest feudal lords were princes. Sources indicate the presence of princely villages, where dependent peasants lived, working for the feudal lord under the supervision of his clerks, elders, including those who specifically supervised field work. The boyars were also major feudal lords - the feudal aristocracy, which grew rich through the exploitation of peasants and predatory wars.

With the introduction of Christianity, the church and monasteries became the collective feudal lord. Not immediately, but gradually the church acquires land, the princes grant it tithes - a tenth of the income from the population and other, including judicial, income.

The lowest stratum of the feudal class consisted of warriors and servants, princes and boyars. They were formed from free people, but sometimes even from slaves. By currying favor with the master, such servants sometimes received land from the peasants and became exploiters themselves. Article 91 of Russian Pravda equates the warriors in the order of succession to the boyars and contrasts both with the smerds.

The main right and privilege of the feudal lords was the right to land and exploitation of the peasants. The state also protected other property of the exploiters. The life and health of the feudal lord were also subject to enhanced protection. For encroachment on them, a high penalty was established, differentiated depending on the position of the victim. The honor of the feudal lord was also highly guarded: insult by action, and in some cases by word, also entailed serious punishment.

The bulk of the working population were smerds. Some researchers believed that all rural residents were called smerds (B.D. Grekov). Others (S.V. Yushkov) believe that the smerds are part of the peasantry, already enslaved by the feudal lords. The latter point of view seems preferable.

The Smerdas lived in rope communities, which grew out of the clan system, but in the Old Russian state they no longer had a consanguineous, but a territorial, neighborly character. The rope was tied by mutual responsibility, a system of mutual assistance.

In the Old Russian state, the figure of a typical feudal-dependent peasant appears - the zakup. Zakup has his own farm, but need forces him to go into bondage to his master. He takes a coupa from the feudal lord - sum of money or in-kind assistance and is therefore obliged to work for the owner. The labor of purchasing does not go towards paying off the debt; it acts as if only paying interest on the debt. Therefore, the purchase cannot work off the coupon and practically remains with the master for life. In addition, the purchaser is responsible for damage caused by negligence to the master. In case of escape from the master, the purchaser automatically turns into a slave. Theft committed by procurement also leads to servitude. The master has the right of patrimonial justice in relation to the purchase. Russkaya Pravda notes that the feudal lord has the right to beat a careless purchaser (Article 62 of the Trinity List). The purchaser, unlike the slave, has some rights. He cannot be beaten “for no reason”, he can complain about his master to the judges, he cannot be sold as a slave (with such an offense he is automatically released from his obligations towards the master), his property cannot be taken away with impunity.

In the multi-structured ancient Russian society, there also existed “involuntary servants”. Russian Truth calls an unfree man a serf or a servant, and an unfree woman a slave, uniting both general concept"servants".

The servants were almost completely powerless. Russkaya Pravda equates it to cattle: “the fruit comes from the servants or from the cattle,” says one of its articles. In this respect, the servants of the Old Russian state resembled ancient slaves, who in Rome were called “talking instruments.” However, in Rus', slaves did not form the basis of production; slavery was predominantly patriarchal, domestic. It is no coincidence that Russian Truth identifies categories of slaves whose lives were protected by higher punishment. These are all kinds of service personnel of the princely and boyar court - servants, children's educators, artisans, etc. Over time, the process of transforming serfs into feudal-dependent peasants also develops. They became the first serfs.

In the Old Russian state there was still no enslavement of peasants. Feudal dependence can historically exist in different forms. This stage of development of feudalism is characterized by the absence of attachment of the peasant to the land and the personality of the feudal lord. Even a purchaser, if he somehow manages to collect money to pay the debt, can immediately leave his master.

In the Old Russian state there were large and numerous cities. Already in the 9th - 10th centuries. there were at least 25 of them. In the next century, over 60 more cities were added, and by the time of the Mongol-Tatar invasion there were about 300 cities in Rus'. Merchants, who were a privileged category of people, stood out among the urban population. This especially applies to guests engaged in foreign trade. Skilled artisans also lived in Kyiv, Novgorod and other cities, who built magnificent temples and palaces for the nobility, made weapons, jewelry, etc.

Cities were centers of culture. Old Russian village for a long time was illiterate. But in the cities, literacy was widespread, not only among merchants, but also among artisans. This is evidenced by numerous birch bark letters, as well as author’s inscriptions on household items.

As we see, in the Old Russian state, classes are already taking shape, i.e. large groups of people united by a common legal status. Therefore, one can hardly agree with some domestic and foreign authors who believe that the class system was characteristic only of Western feudalism.

The Old Russian state was multi-ethnic, as already noted, and from the very beginning. "The Tale of Bygone Years", listing the tribes that allegedly invited the Varangian princes, also names clearly non-Slavic tribes - Chud and all. As the Slavs moved to the northeast, they inevitably entered the area of ​​settlement of the Finnish tribes. However, this process was largely peaceful and was not accompanied by the subjugation of the indigenous population. In the vast forests of the Volga basin and beyond there was enough space for everyone, and the Slavs peacefully mixed with the local tribes. With the introduction of Christianity, this synthesis was facilitated by the identical baptism of all pagans - both Slavs and Finns. The Russian Metropolitan Hilarion in his “Sermon on Law and Grace” (11th century) speaks of the equality of all Christian peoples, without at all emphasizing the priority of the Russians. In legislation we will also not find any advantages for the Slavs, for Rus'. Moreover, Russian Truth provides for certain advantages in the field of civil and procedural law for foreigners, based on the principles of traditional Russian hospitality.

The ideas of internationalism and the absence of any chauvinism permeate ancient Russian literature.

3. STATE AND POLITICAL SYSTEM OF THE ANCIENT RUSSIAN STATE

S.V. Yushkov believed that the Old Russian state arose and existed for some time as a pre-feudal state. Modern researchers mostly consider this state to be early feudal from the very beginning. As such, he had certain characteristic features.

Organization of state unity. This problem caused great controversy both in pre-revolutionary and modern literature. Some authors even argue that in the 9th century. There was no single Old Russian state at all, but only a union of tribal unions. More cautious researchers believe that from the 9th to the middle of the 10th century. we can talk about a union of local principalities, i.e. states Some people believe that federation took place, although this institution is not characteristic of a feudal state, but arises only in a bourgeois and socialist state. At the same time, they claim that the federation existed not only on initial stage development of the Old Russian state, but also throughout its history.

It seems that the point of view of S.V. looks more convincing. Yushkov, who believed that the Old Russian state was characterized by a system of suzerainty-vassalage relations typical of early feudalism, suggesting that the entire structure of the state rested on the ladder of the feudal hierarchy. The vassal depends on his lord, who depends on a larger lord or supreme overlord. Vassals are obliged to help their lord, first of all, to be in his army, and also to pay him tribute. In turn, the lord is obliged to provide the vassal with land and protect him from the encroachments of neighbors and other oppression. Within the limits of his possessions, the vassal has immunity. This meant that no one, including the overlord, could interfere in his internal affairs. The vassals of the great princes were local princes. The main immune rights were: the right to collect tribute and the right to hold court with the receipt of appropriate income.

State mechanism. The Old Russian state was a monarchy. It was headed by Grand Duke. The supreme legislative power belonged to him. There are known major laws issued by the Grand Dukes and bearing their names: the Charter of Vladimir, the Truth of Yaroslav, etc. The Grand Duke concentrated executive power in his hands, being the head of the administration. The grand dukes also performed the functions of military leaders; they themselves led the army and personally led the army into battle. At the end of his life, Vladimir Monomakh recalled his 83 great campaigns. Some princes died in battle, as happened, for example, with Svyatoslav.

The grand dukes performed the external functions of the state not only by force of arms, but also by diplomatic means. Ancient Rus' stood at the European level of diplomatic art. It concluded various kinds of international treaties - military, trade and other nature. As was customary then, contracts had oral and written forms. Already in the 10th century. The Old Russian state entered into contractual relationship with Byzantium, Khazaria, Bulgaria, Germany, as well as with the Hungarians, Varangians, Pechenegs, etc. Diplomatic negotiations were headed by the monarch himself, as was the case, for example, with Princess Olga, who traveled with an embassy to Byzantium. The princes also performed judicial functions.

The figure of the prince grew out of the tribal leader, but the princes of the period of military democracy were elected. Having become the head of state, the Grand Duke transfers his power by inheritance, in a direct descending line, i.e. from father to son. Usually the princes were men, but there is a known exception - Princess Olga.

Although the great princes were monarchs, they still could not do without the opinion of those close to them. This is how a council under the prince was formed, which was not legally formalized, but had a serious influence on the monarch. This council included the close associates of the Grand Duke, the top of his squad - the princes and men.

Sometimes in the Old Russian state feudal congresses and congresses of the top feudal lords were also convened, resolving inter-princely disputes and some other important matters. According to S.V. Yushkov, it was at such a congress that the Yaroslavich Truth was adopted.

In the Old Russian state there was also a veche, which grew out of the ancient people's assembly. There is debate in science about the prevalence of veche in Rus' and its significance in individual lands. The high activity of the meeting in Novgorod is undeniable; As for his role in the Kyiv land, the sources do not allow us to answer this question unambiguously.

Initially, in the Old Russian state there was a decimal, numerical system of government. This system grew out of a military organization, when the heads of military units - tens, sots, thousand - became leaders of more or less large units of the state. Thus, Tysyatsky retained the functions of a military leader, while Sotsky became a city judicial and administrative official.

The decimal system did not yet separate central government from local government. However, later such differentiation arises. In the central administration, the so-called palace-patrimonial system is emerging. It grew out of the idea of ​​combining the management of the grand ducal palace with public administration. In the grand-ducal household there were various kinds of servants who were in charge of satisfying certain vital needs: butlers, grooms, etc. Over time, the princes entrust these persons with any spheres of management, one way or another connected with their initial activities, provide them for this necessary funds. Thus a personal servant becomes statesman, administrator.

The local government system was simple. In addition to the local princes, who sat in their fiefs, representatives of the central government - governors and volosts - were sent to the localities. They received “food” from the population for their service. This is how the feeding system developed.

The basis of the military organization of the Old Russian state was the grand ducal squad, which was relatively small. These were professional warriors who depended on the favors of the monarch, but on whom he himself also depended. They usually lived in or around the princely court and were always ready to go on any campaigns in which they looked for booty and entertainment. The warriors were not only warriors, but also advisers to the prince. The senior squad represented the top of the feudal lords, which to a large extent determined the policy of the prince. The vassals of the Grand Duke brought with them squads, as well as a militia from their servants and peasants. Every man knew how to wield a weapon, albeit a very simple one at that time. Boyar and princely sons were already mounted on horses at the age of three, and at the age of 12 their fathers took them on a campaign.

Cities, or at least their central part, were fortresses, castles, defended, if necessary, not only by the princely squad, but also by the entire population of the city. To defend against the Pechenegs, Vladimir Svyatoslavich built a chain of fortresses on the left bank of the Dnieper, recruiting garrisons for them from the northern Russian lands.

Princes often resorted to the services of mercenaries - first the Varangians, and later the steppe nomads (Karakalpaks, etc.).

In Ancient Rus' there were no special judicial bodies yet. Judicial functions were performed by various representatives of the administration, including, as already mentioned, the Grand Duke himself. However, there were special officials who assisted in the administration of justice. Among them we can name, for example, the Virnikov - persons who collected criminal fines for murder. The Virnikovs were accompanied by a whole retinue of small officials. Judicial functions were also carried out by church bodies. There was also a patrimonial court - the right of the feudal lord to judge the people dependent on him. The judicial powers of the feudal lord formed an integral part of his immunity rights.

Public administration, wars, and the personal needs of the princes and their entourage required, of course, a lot of money. In addition to income from their own lands and from the feudal exploitation of peasants, the princes also established a system of taxes and tribute.

The tribute was preceded by voluntary gifts from tribe members to their prince and squad. Later, these gifts became a mandatory tax, and the payment of tribute itself became a sign of subordination, which is where the word subject was born, i.e. under tribute.

Initially, tribute was collected by polyudya, when princes, usually once a year, traveled around the lands under their control and collected income directly from their subjects. The sad fate of Grand Duke Igor, killed by the Drevlyans for excessive extortions, forced his widow, Princess Olga, to streamline the system of collecting state revenues. She established the so-called graveyards, i.e. special tribute collection points. There are other ideas about graveyards in science.

A system of various direct taxes, as well as trade, judicial and other duties, has developed. Taxes were usually collected in furs, but this does not mean that they were only natural. Marten furs and squirrels were a specific monetary unit. Even when they lost their marketable appearance, their value as a means of payment did not disappear if they retained the princely sign. These were, as it were, the first Russian banknotes. Rus' did not have its own deposits of precious metals, so already from the 8th century. Along with furs, foreign currency (dirhams, later denarii) came into circulation. This currency was often melted down into Russian hryvnia.

An important element political system Old Russian society became a church closely connected with the state. Initially, Vladimir Svyatoslavich streamlined the pagan cult, establishing a system of six gods led by the god of thunder and war - Perun. Then, however, he baptized Rus', introducing the Christian religion, the most convenient for feudalism, preaching the divine origin of the power of the monarch, the obedience of the working people to the state, etc.

There is a debate in science about where the new religion came to us from. According to chronicle legend, Vladimir, before changing the religions of his ancestors, called representatives different countries and different churches. From Khazar Khaganate, where, as we remember, the elite of society professed Judaism, apologists of this religion arrived. Defenders of Islam arrived from Volga Bulgaria. But all were defeated by Christian missionaries, who convinced the Grand Duke of Kyiv of the advantages of their religion and church. The result of Vladimir’s thoughts is known. However, it is debatable where exactly the Christian preachers came from. The most common belief is that these were Byzantine missionaries. However, some researchers suggest that Christianity came to us from Danube Bulgaria, Moravia, and even Rome. There is also a version that the introduction of Christianity was also not without the Varangians; in any case, modern researchers see in Old Russian Orthodoxy not only southern, but also Western European influence.

It is no coincidence that the introduction of Christianity caused stubborn resistance of the people. Even pre-revolutionary authors noted that the baptism of Rus' sometimes took place with fire and sword, as was the case, for example, in Novgorod. Armed resistance to the missionaries also took place in other cities. Of course, not only class, but also purely religious motives were reflected here: people, accustomed for centuries to the faith of their fathers and grandfathers, did not want to live without visible reasons give up on her. This was especially the case in the northern regions of Rus'.

At the head Orthodox Church there was a metropolitan appointed initially from Byzantium, and then by the great princes. In some Russian lands the church was headed by a bishop.

CONCLUSION

The Old Russian state was a major milestone in the history of the peoples of our country and its neighbors in Europe and Asia. Ancient Rus' became the largest European state of its time. Its area was more than 1 million square meters. km, and the population is 4.5 million people. Naturally, it had a strong influence on the destinies of world history.

The Old Russian state, created by the Old Russian people, was the cradle of the three largest Slavic peoples - the Great Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians.

Ancient Rus' was a multi-ethnic state from the very beginning. The peoples that became part of it then continued their development as part of other Slavic states that became its successors. Some of them assimilated and voluntarily lost their ethnic independence, while others have survived to this day.

In the Old Russian state, a form of early feudal monarchy developed, which was then preserved by its successors for several centuries.

Ancient Russian law was of enormous importance, the monuments of which, especially the Russian Truth, survived to the Moscow state. They also had significance for the law of neighboring peoples.

Objective historical processes of the development of feudalism entailed the withering away of the Old Russian state. The development of feudal relations, which gave birth to Ancient Rus', ultimately led to its collapse, the inevitable process of establishing feudal fragmentation in the 12th century

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3. Social system of Ancient Rus'

Early feudal societies were strictly stratified, i.e. each class had a special legal status. In ancient Russian society there were the following categories of population.

Slaves and serfs. Slavery in Rus' became widespread only as a social system. There were reasons for this. Maintaining a slave was too expensive. The terms " slave", "servant", "servant". Legal status the slave changed over time. Since the 11th century. In Russian law, the principle began to operate according to which a slave could not be a subject of legal relations. He was with property master, he did not have his own property.

Feudal lords. The feudal class was formed gradually. it included princes, boyars, warriors, local nobility, mayors, tiuns, etc. The feudal lords carried out civil administration and answered for a military organization. They were mutually connected by a system vassalage, collected tribute and court fines from the population were in a privileged position compared to the rest of the population.

Clergy. Its legal status as a privileged social group took shape with the adoption of Christianity, which became important factor strengthening national statehood at the initial stage of its development. After the adoption of Christianity in 988, the princes began to widely practice the distribution of land to the highest representatives of the church hierarchy and monasteries. The church received right charge tithe for your content. Over time, she was removed from the princely jurisdiction and began to judge her hierarchs herself, as well as administer justice to everyone who lived on her lands.

Urban population. Kievan Rus was a country of cities, of which there were up to three hundred. The cities were military strongholds, centers of the struggle against foreign invasion, centers of crafts and trade. There was an organization here similar to the guilds and workshops of Western European cities. The entire city population paid taxes.

Peasantry. The bulk of the population were stinks. The Smerds were a semi-free population and lived in communities. The community in the Old Russian state was no longer related by blood, but territorial, neighborly character. It was based on the principle mutual responsibility, mutual assistance. The responsibilities of the peasant population in relation to the state were expressed in paying taxes (in the form of tribute) And quitrents, participation in armed defense in the event of hostilities.