Russian lands in the XII - XIII centuries. Russian lands in the XII-XIII centuries
Yaroslav the Wise tried to prevent civil strife after his death and established an order of succession to the Kyiv throne among his children according to seniority: from brother to brother and from uncle to eldest nephew. But this did not help to avoid a power struggle between the brothers. In 1097, the Yaroslavichs gathered in the city of Lyubich (Lyubich Congress of Princes) and forbade the princes to move from principality to principality. Thus, the preconditions for feudal fragmentation were created. But this decision did not stop the internecine wars. Now the princes were concerned about expanding the territories of their principalities.
For a short time, peace was restored by Yaroslav's grandson Vladimir Monomakh (1113-1125). But after his death, wars broke out with renewed vigor. Kyiv, weakened by the constant struggle with the Polovtsians and internal strife, gradually lost its leading importance. The population seeks salvation from constant plunder and moves to calmer principalities: Galicia-Volyn (Upper Dnieper) and Rostov-Suzdal (between the Volga and Oka rivers). In many ways, the princes were pushed to seize new lands by the boyars, who were interested in expanding their patrimonial lands. Due to the fact that the princes established the Kiev order of inheritance in their principalities, processes of fragmentation began in them: if at the beginning of the 12th century there were 15 principalities, then by the end of the 13th century there were already 250 principalities. Feudal fragmentation was a natural process in the development of statehood. It was accompanied by a revival of the economy, a rise in culture and the formation of local cultural centers. At the same time, during the period of fragmentation, the awareness of national unity was not lost.
Reasons for fragmentation:
- 1) the absence of strong economic ties between individual principalities - each principality produced everything it needed within itself, that is, it lived on a subsistence economy;
- 2) the emergence and strengthening of local princely dynasties;
- 3) weakening of the central power of the Kyiv prince;
- 4) the decline of the trade route along the Dnieper “from the Varangians to the Greeks” and the strengthening of the importance of the Volga as a trade route.
The Galician-Volyn principality is located in the foothills of the Carpathians. Trade routes from Byzantium to Europe passed through the principality. In the principality, a struggle arose between the prince and the large boyars - landowners. Poland and Hungary often intervened in the struggle.
The Galician principality especially strengthened under Yaroslav Vladimirovich Osmomysl (1157-1182). After his death, the Galician principality was annexed to Volyn by Prince Roman Mstislavovich (1199-1205). Roman managed to capture Kyiv, declared himself Grand Duke, and drove the Polovtsians back from the southern borders. Roman's policy was continued by his son Daniil Romanovich (1205-1264). During his time there was an invasion of the Tatar-Mongols and the prince had to recognize the power of the khan over himself. After the death of Daniel, a struggle broke out between the boyar families in the principality, as a result of which Volyn was captured by Lithuania, and Galicia by Poland.
The Novgorod principality extended throughout the Russian North from the Baltic states to the Urals. Through Novgorod there was a lively trade with Europe along the Baltic Sea. The Novgorod boyars were also drawn into this trade. After the uprising of 1136, Prince Vsevolod was expelled and the Novgorodians began to invite princes to their place, that is, a feudal republic was established. Princely power was significantly limited by the city veche (assembly) and the Council of Gentlemen. The function of the prince was reduced to organizing the defense of the city and external representation. In reality, the city was governed by the mayor elected at the assembly and the Council of Gentlemen. The veche had the right to expel the prince from the city. Delegates from the city ends (Konchansky veche) took part in the meeting. All free townspeople of a given end could participate in the Konchan veche. The republican organization of power in Novgorod was class-based. Novgorod became the center of the fight against German and Swedish aggression.
The Vladimir-Suzdal principality was located between the Volga and Oka rivers and was protected from the steppe inhabitants by forests. By attracting the population to desert lands, the princes founded new cities and prevented the formation of city self-government (veche) and large boyar land ownership. At the same time, settling on the princely lands, free community members became dependent on the landowner, that is, the development of serfdom continued and intensified.
The beginning of the local dynasty was laid by the son of Vladimir Monomakh, Yuri Dolgoruky (1125-1157). He founded a number of cities: Dmitrov, Zvenigorod, Moscow. But Yuri sought to get to the great reign in Kyiv. Andrei Yuryevich Bogolyubsky (1157-1174) became the real owner of the principality. He founded the city of Vladimir-on-Klyazma and moved the capital of the principality there from Rostov. Wanting to expand the borders of his principality, Andrei fought a lot with his neighbors. The boyars removed from power organized a conspiracy and killed Andrei Bogolyubsky. Andrei's policy was continued by his brother Vsevolod Yuryevich the Big Nest (1176-1212) and Vsevolod's son Yuri (1218-1238). In 1221, Yuri Vsevolodovich founded Nizhny Novgorod. The development of Rus' was slowed down by the Tatar-Mongol invasion of 1237-1241.
By the middle of the 12th century. Kievan Rus ceased to exist, in its place arose 12 states, in sources called lands. There is an opinion that Rus' of that time continued to maintain a certain political unity, that it can be called confederation of Russian principalities. Indeed, the Russian Orthodox Church was united, the princes belonged to the same dynasty, they even exchanged thrones in the principalities. However, the principalities were constantly at war with each other, their state structure was different, there was no single army, financial system, or legal framework. It would still be more correct to recognize the final collapse of Kievan Rus.
Russian lands formed by the middle of the 12th century:
Kyiv– did not have its own dynasty; the Kiev throne was considered all-Russian, the Kiev prince was the Grand Duke;
Novgorodskaya– also did not have its own dynasty; princes to the Novgorod throne called up in the evening;
Pereyaslavskaya– due to its position bordering the steppe, it also did not have its own dynasty;
Vladimirskaya- the descendants of Yuri Dolgoruky, son of Monomakh, established themselves here ( Yurievichi);
Muromskaya- the local dynasty was built to Svyatoslav Yaroslavich, son of Yaroslav Svyatoslavich, grandson of Svyatoslav Yaroslavich, great-grandson of Yaroslav the Wise ( Svyatoslavichy);
Ryazan- the dynasty of Rostislav Yaroslavich, the brother of the founder of the Murom dynasty (Ryazan Rostislavichy);
Chernigovskaya- the descendants of Oleg Svyatoslavich, the grandson of Yaroslav the Wise ( Olgovichi);
Galitskaya- the descendants of the eldest grandson of Yaroslav the Wise, Rostislav Vladimirovich, established themselves in this land, although the direct ancestor of the dynasty was the grandson of this Rostislav - Vladimir (Vladimirko) Volodarich (Galician Rostislavichy);
Volynskaya- was controlled by the descendants of Izyaslav Mstislavich, the son of Mstislav the Great and grandson of Monomakh (Volyn Izyaslavichy);
Smolenskaya– the local dynasty descends from the brother of the founder of the Volyn dynasty Rostislav Mstislavich, grandson of Monomakh (Smolensk Rostislavichy);
Turovskaya- the only land where the descendants of Svyatopolk Izyaslavich, the son of the eldest son of Yaroslav the Wise, once the Grand Duke, were able to establish themselves (Turov Izyaslavichy);
Polotsk- the only land that was ruled not by the descendants of Yaroslav the Wise, but by his elder brother Izyaslav Vladimirovich (Polotsk Izyaslavichy).
Consequences of the collapse of Rus'. The question of assessing the collapse of Rus' has great importance to understand the paths of development of Russia after the end of the period of fragmentation. From the point of view of the linear development of society, the period of fragmentation of Rus' is a natural stage on the path to the future centralization of the country and political and economic takeoff on a new basis. During the period of fragmentation, the country's economy continued to develop progressively. The catastrophe for Rus' was that the period of fragmentation coincided with the invasion of the Mongols, which led to the enslavement of Rus' and, as many historians believe, to a delay in its development. On the other hand, the Golden Horde unwittingly contributed to the unification of the Russian lands, which were striving to free themselves from the yoke. From the point of view of the Eurasians, fragmentation was a characteristic state of Russian lands. G.V. Vernadsky noted that Rus' was united only under Vladimir and in the second half of Yaroslav’s reign. Eurasians considered the goal of Russia’s development not political unification, but the construction of a Eurasian state through the development by the Russian people of their “place of development”. Original point of view L.N. Gumilyov, author of the famous synthetic theory of ethnogenesis. In his opinion, the collapse of Kievan Rus into separate principalities marked the decline of the history of the Old Russian ethnos. During the period of fragmentation, Rus' experienced a phase of obstruction, i.e. a gradual decrease in the level of passionarity, which would inevitably lead to the death of the ethnic group. This is what happened with the invasion of the Mongols and the loss of political independence by Russia. In place of North-Eastern Rus', a new – Russian – ethnic group is emerging. Its history is already connected with a completely different state - the Principality of Moscow - the Russian Tsardom - the Russian Empire. With all the diversity of assessments of the collapse of Rus', all historians emphasize that its negative consequence was the loss of independence by Russia. A brief increase in prosperity gave way to a foreign yoke. We can observe a similar picture in Russian history and in the future. So, political crisis early XVII century led to the capture of half of Russia by the Poles and Swedes, the collapse of the Russian Empire in 1918 almost ended in the division of Russia between former Entente allies, the collapse of the USSR even now gives rise to illusions in the West of dividing Russia into spheres of influence. The conclusion suggests itself that the political unity of Russia is a necessary condition for its successful development.
During the formation of independent lands based on the political structure inherent in the ancient Russian early feudal monarchy, various political regime options:
in the north, in the Novgorod land (and later in the Pskov land, which separated from Novgorod) democratic a regime characterized by the main role of the veche;
in the South-West (Galician, Volyn, Kiev, Pereyaslavl lands) and, possibly, in the Principality of Polotsk aristocratic a regime characterized by the determining influence of the Boyar Duma under the prince;
in the eastern Russian principalities - Vladimir, Ryazan, Murom, Smolensk and Chernigov - established monarchical a regime characterized by the priority of the power of the prince.
Main cause differences in political regimes in the Russian principalities - their geographical position. Agriculture did not play a role in the north leading role, princely and boyar estates could not be rich. In the southwest, on the contrary, the boyar estates competed in wealth with the princely estates, and, accordingly, the military forces of the boyars and their political weight allowed them to act as competitors to the princes. In the eastern, non-black earth regions, the boyar estates could not compete with the princely ones, and here the power of the prince was unquestioned.
Three principles of ancient Russian statehood. State- political system ancient Russian principalities combined a monarchical principle in the form of the power of the prince, an aristocratic principle in the form of the Boyar Duma or Council, a democratic principle in the form of the power of the people's assembly, the veche and elected officials. Each of the Russian lands had all three principles, but the degree of importance, weight, and level of power of one or another of them varied greatly in different cases.
The prince in Rus' performed a number of functions: 1) the people needed princely power in matters of justice and military defense. The prince relied on his squad and was responsible for making decisions; 2) prince – head of the executive branch; 3) the prince is the defender of the Orthodox faith. But the prince was also closely connected with local government. Initially, some officials subordinate to the prince were elected by the people. They were ranked by rank in accordance with the so-called “mathematical principle”: the head of a thousand is a thousand, the head of a hundred is a sotsky, the head of a unit of 10 people is a ten. The decimal system in population grouping and territorial division existed among many peoples and is associated with military organization and collection of taxes. In this sense, monarchical power also appears as the idea of representation. Thus, in 1211, Vsevolod III, in order to stabilize inter-princely relations, convened a meeting, which a number of Russian historians consider the prototype of future consultative assemblies of the Muscovite kingdom, called Zemsky Sobors.
The functions and competencies of the Council of Boyars under the prince were determined to a large extent by custom rather than by law. The composition of the Duma was equally uncertain, although custom required that the prince consult only with old and experienced people. The Boyar Duma consisted of an inner circle - “men of the front” (from 3 to 5 members), leading members of the princely squad. The Boyar Duma was a permanent body. When discussing major state affairs, it was necessary to convene a meeting of the Duma with the involvement of not only members of the princely squad, but also boyars from outside (the local landed aristocracy).
The veche was a universal and ubiquitous institution in Ancient Rus', both in big cities and small ones. All free citizens had the right to take part in the meeting, representatives of the suburbs had the right not only to attend it, but also to vote. The veche met as needed, on the cathedral square, at the sound of the veche bell. Only men and exclusively heads of families had the right to vote. However, a bachelor living on his own was a member of the congregation, and only the votes of unmarried sons living in their father's house were not counted. The decisions had to be made unanimously. The minority had to submit to the majority, sometimes disputes ended in a fight. The degree of influence of the veche varied in different cities. In the chronicles, the veche was first mentioned in Belgorod in 997, in Veliky Novgorod in 1016, in Kyiv in 1068. The veche was in charge of issues of war and peace, the calling and expulsion of princes, the elections and removal of mayors, thousand, and in Novgorod also the archbishop, the conclusion of treaties with neighboring lands and principalities, and the adoption of laws. The veche was not an instrument of real democracy, true democracy; the interests of the city leaders dominated in decision-making; however, it allowed the popular masses to influence political life. The nobility sought to reduce the importance of the veche, and the princely government sought the complete abolition of the veche order. In Novgorod there was a special “council of gentlemen”, which included the nobility, and which determined the course of political life in the city.
There were constant wars between the princes, which only led to the weakening of the principalities. All princely strife, with a certain degree of convention, can be divided into two groups:
1) between the principalities at all-Russian tables - Kiev, Pereyaslavl, Novgorod;
2) between princes for inheritance within the principalities and primacy in their principalities.
The main conflicts that shook the Russian lands at the end of the 12th – beginning of the 13th centuries:
1171-1174 – The struggle of the Smolensk Rostislavichs (Roman, Rurik, Davyd, Mstislav) against the Grand Duke Andrei Bogolyubsky for Kyiv. Kyiv for this short period changed hands seven times. The development of events was interrupted by the murder of Andrei Bogolyubsky (1174).
1174-1180 – The struggle for primacy in the Vladimir-Suzdal, Kyiv lands and Novgorod lands. In Vladimir, the struggle was between the nephews of Andrei Bogolyubsky (sons of his older brother Rostislav) on the one hand and his younger brothers Mikhail and Vsevolod on the other. Vsevolod (Vsevolod III the Big Nest) won, but the Rostislavichs seized power in Novgorod. As a result, Vsevolod expelled his nephews from Novgorod. The struggle for Kyiv unfolded between the Chernigov Olgovichs and the Volyn Izyaslavichs. The Chernigov princes emerged victorious.
1180-1182 – The struggle of the Vladimir-Suzdal and Kyiv lands for hegemony in Rus'. A conflict broke out between Vsevolod the Big Nest, seeking to control Ryazan, Mur and Novgorod, and the Olgovichi, who at that time occupied Kiev and also seeking to extend their influence to Novgorod. The Olgovichs generally considered Ryazan and Murom theirs, because the princes of these lands were descendants of Oleg of Chernigov’s younger brother, Yaroslav. In Kyiv itself, there was a parallel struggle between the Olgovichs and the Smolensk Rostislavichs. The Olgovichi people defended Kyiv.
1187-1190 – Troubles in the Galician land. The Galician prince Vladimir Yaroslavich was expelled by his own boyars and the neighboring Volyn prince Roman Mstislavich, but eventually regained the throne.
1186-1208 - Troubles in the Ryazan land. The war broke out between siblings - the younger and eldest sons of the deceased Ryazan prince Gleb. Vsevolod the Big Nest joined the fight, supporting the younger Glebovichs. As a result, Ryazan fell under the influence of the Vladimir Principality.
1194-1199 – The struggle for primacy in the Kyiv land between the Chernigov Olgovichs, the Smolensk Rostislavichs and the Volyn Izyaslavichs. The development of events was interrupted by the death of the main characters of the drama - Davyd Rostislavich of Smolensk in 1197 (his nephew Mstislav Romanovich became the prince of Smolensk), Yaroslav Vsevolodich of Chernigov in 1198 (his cousin Igor Svyatoslavich became the prince of Chernigov) and Vladimir Yaroslavich of Galitsky in 1198 (Vladimir had no sons both nephews and the Galicians called Roman Mstislavich of Volyn to the throne, who united the Galician and Volyn lands under his rule (1198)).
1202-1212 – The struggle for the Galician, Volyn, Pereyaslav and Kyiv lands. All the influential princes of Rus' took part in this long war. The result of the war was the strengthening of the influence of the Olgovichi, who took control of Kyiv and Pereyaslavl, and the loss of Galich by the Russian princes (it was temporarily captured by the Hungarians).
1196-1212 – The struggle of the Vladimir-Suzdal land for primacy in Novgorod with Mstislav Mstislavich Toropetsky (Udaly) (son of Mstislav Rostislavich Smolensky). Mstislav managed to become the Prince of Novgorod. At the height of the struggle, in 1212, Vsevolod the Big Nest died.
1212-1228 – Civil strife: in the Vladimir land between the sons of Vsevolod the Big Nest; in the Kyiv, Smolensk and Chernigov lands between the Smolensk Rostislavichs and Olgovichs. At the same time, wars took place between various princes in the Novgorod, Ryazan, and Volyn lands.
Internecine wars weakened Rus''s defenses, which neighbors took advantage of, resulting in international position of Rus' at the beginning of the 13th century. has deteriorated significantly. IN 1201 German crusaders founded in the Baltic states (in the territory of modern Latvia) Order of the Sword. IN 1226 settled in the Southern Baltic (East Prussia) Warband. All this was part of a systematic and large-scale offensive of the Crusaders to the East. But the Russian principalities were also in danger from the East - in 1223 appeared in the southern Russian steppes Mongols. The Mongol army attacked the Polovtsians, and they asked for help from the Russian princes. Some Russian princes provided this assistance, but Battle of Kalka The Russian-Polovtsian army was defeated. The Mongols, having plundered the borders of the Russian principalities, returned to Central Asia, but they returned with information that the Russians were allies of the Polovtsians.
Crusaders against Rus'. Europe, feeling an acute shortage of land, an excess of knights and the need to control the trade routes connecting it with the rich Near and Middle East, under the banner of the liberation of the Holy Sepulcher and the spread of the true faith for the salvation of the pagans at the end of the 11th century. starts Crusades. Everyone knows the European crusades in Palestine against the Seljuk Turks (the first - 1096-1099, the second - 1147-1148, the third - 1189-1192), but at the same time the church illuminates the actions of the active Castilians and Aragonese in Spain against the Arabs (“Reconquista” - “reconquest”), the Germans and Danes against the pagan Baltic Slavs, the Swedes against the Finns (“Drang nach Osten” - “onset to the east”). These campaigns will also be called crusades. Thus, three main directions of pan-European foreign policy– Eastern Mediterranean, The Iberian Peninsula, Baltics. It is interesting that internal strife between European kings and dukes recedes into the background during the Crusades, which indicates that Western countries are aware of their unity regarding the “infidels.” And their number already included Orthodox Christians.
Already the fourth crusade (1202-1204) was directed against Byzantium. Its results were the liquidation of the Byzantine Empire (temporarily) and the taking of control of trade in the Eastern Mediterranean by Western European cities (for which everything was started). At the same time, people in Rus' are beginning to get acquainted with the crusaders. In 1201-1202, the Germans founded Riga and organized Order of the Sword to take over the Baltic states. In 1237, the Order of the Swordsmen formed with the Teutonic Order Livonian Order. Thus, the crusaders gained a foothold on the northern and southern flanks of Rus', which at that time was a conglomerate of states at war with each other and seemed easy prey to the “brothers in Christ.” Thanks to the defeat of the Crusaders by the Cumans in 1205, the danger in the south for Rus' passed, but was soon replaced by the claims of Catholic Poland and Hungary, and in the north it resulted in a 350-year armed confrontation. Only during Livonian War(1558-1583) The Livonian Order was destroyed, although its territories did not go to Russia either - they went to Sweden, Denmark and Poland.
Crusader offensive in the Baltics, supported by different time Sweden, Denmark and the Hanseatic Trade Union did not have the nature of an invasion due to the internal fragmentation of Europe, but it was the first organized attack of the West on Rus', which had the nature of a conflict between civilizations. It was carried out under the banner of religion, but had completely transparent mercantile goals - the seizure of lands with their subsequent colonization and the seizure of trade routes connecting the Baltic region with the East. That is why main goal The crusaders were Novgorod - the center of Russian trade. The important thing is that it was the West that acted as the aggressor in the conflict of civilizations.
As a result of the political processes that took place in Rus' in the second half of the 12th - early 13th centuries. Of all the lands, three centers emerged, whose influence, strength and economic power significantly exceeded those of their neighbors. At Vsevolod the Big Nest(1176-1212) the Vladimir land strengthened. Ryazan and Murom were actually subordinate to her; Vladimir had a direct influence on Novgorod; the Vladimir prince was considered the most powerful in Rus'. In 1199, the Galician and Volyn lands united into one principality. The Galicia-Volyn principality reached its greatest power under its first prince Roman Volynsky(1199-1205). Finally, after Battle of Lipica (1216) the Novgorod land significantly strengthened, adding political power to its economic power, which it had due to its geographical location (access to the Baltic Sea). An important phenomenon was the further fragmentation of lands into appanages. The Principality of Polotsk was the first to take this path - by the time the state collapsed, it was already divided into the appanages of Minsk, Vitebsk, Grodno, and Polotsk. Soon the same fate, albeit to varying degrees, befell other principalities.
So, after the collapse of Rus' into separate lands, their development took different paths. Three variants of political regimes emerged, of all the lands the strongest were Vladimir, Galicia-Volyn and Novgorod. At the same time, the international position of the Russian principalities deteriorated significantly due to their weakening as a result of internecine wars and the intensification of the crusaders in the West and the nomadic Mongols in the East.
Russian lands and principalities in the 12th - first half of the 13th century.
Kruglova T.V.
Between Kievan Rus and the Muscovite kingdom lies a time period of four centuries. This period of ancient Russian history received several names in the scientific literature, such as “feudal fragmentation”, “political fragmentation”, “specific period”.
Most researchers believe that feudal fragmentation is the result of the further development of the feudal mode of production, the establishment of large princely and boyar land ownership, the growth of cities and regional trade. If during the times of Kievan Rus the main agricultural population were free communal farmers who paid the Kyiv prince with his family and his warriors rent-tax in the form of tribute, as well as judicial and trade duties; then in the 11th - early 12th centuries. The princely and boyar estates, populated by feudal-dependent people, began to actively take shape. The princely warriors, who were once supported by the prince, began to settle locally and began to receive income directly from owning land. They merged with the local nobility, which contributed to the consolidation of the ruling class. The power of Kyiv weakened, an urgent need arose to formalize the state apparatus locally, which led to the disintegration of Kievan Rus into a number of principalities and lands.
Other historians, in determining the causes of fragmentation, put in the first place not socio-economic factors, but political ones, such as: the development of political institutions, the nature of inter-princely and social relations. We are talking, first of all, about the institution of princely power, about the order of inheritance of the Kyiv and other tables. The famous Russian historian of the last century S.M. Solovyov, the creator of the clan theory, attached great importance to consanguineous ties in the relationships of princes. Indeed, a huge and branched princely tree grew from one root. All Russian princes were descendants of Rurik and St. Vladimir.
After the death of his brother Mstislav Vladimirovich, Yaroslav the Wise began to “uniquely” rule Kievan Rus. In 1054 this ruler died, leaving behind an oral testament, the so-called “Yaroslav row”. The entire territory of Kievan Rus was divided by him between his five sons. The eldest son of Yaroslav the Wise, Izyaslav, received the Kiev table; he became the eldest of his kind, i.e. "father" to his younger brothers. Svyatoslav went to Chernigov, Vsevolod occupied a table in Pereslavl South, two younger brothers Vyacheslav and Igor respectively received Smolensk and Vladimir in Volyn. When Vyacheslav died, Igor was moved by his brothers to Smolensk, and the Yaroslavichs’ nephew, Rostislav Vladimirovich, was sent to the vacant table in Vladimir in Volyn.
This order of replacing princely tables was called “regular” or “ladder”, because the princes moved up the stairs from table to table in accordance with their seniority. The Russian land was considered the sole possession of the entire princely house of Rurikovich. The main Kiev table passed to the eldest in the family: from the father, if he had no living brothers, to the eldest son; from older brother to younger brother; and from him to his nephews - the children of his elder brother. With the death of one of the princes, those below them moved up a step. Contemporaries said: “Just as our great-grandfathers climbed a ladder to the great reign of Kiev, so we must reach it by climbing a ladder.”
But if one of the sons died before his parent or his father did not visit the Kiev table, then this offspring was deprived of the right to climb the ladder to the great Kyiv table. They became outcasts who no longer had a “part” in the Russian land. This branch could receive a certain volost from its relatives and had to be limited to it forever. Thus, the eldest son of Vladimir Saint Izyaslav, who was born from a marriage with Rogneda, died much earlier than his parent; his descendants received a table in Polotsk and reigned in this land until it was included in the Lithuanian state. The outcasts were: the son of the Novgorod prince Vladimir Yaroslavich Rostislav, Igor Yaroslavich Davyd and many others.
The “regular” or “ladder” order had its roots in ancient times, when consanguinity was the leading relationship. As the family of Yaroslav the Wise grew (children, grandchildren, great-grandchildren), it became increasingly difficult to follow this order. Many of his descendants did not want to wait long for their turn and tried to bypass their closest relatives. Thus began a series of endless princely feuds. Even during the life of Izyaslav Yaroslavich, his younger brother Svyatoslav, the ancestor of the Chernigov princes, tried to take possession of the Kyiv table. And although after the death of Izyaslav the Kiev table, according to the “next” order, nevertheless passed to Svyatoslav, then to Vsevolod, and from him to their eldest nephew Svyatopolk Izyaslavich, new trends clearly appear, leading to a change in the existing order.
In 1097 On the initiative of Vladimir Vsevolodich Monomakh, a congress of princes was held in Lyubech, at which a decision was made to end the strife and a completely new principle was proclaimed: “let everyone maintain his fatherland.” Thus, this princely congress opposed the clan order of succession of power inheritance law the possession of the princely branches by the tables that they occupied at that moment. This order began to be called “patrimonial”. The decisions of the Lyubech Congress laid the foundation on which the disunity of the country subsequently took place. These decisions began to be violated immediately after the end of the congress. Princely feuds flared up with renewed vigor. A struggle began between these two orders of succession to the Kyiv table.
However, the “patrimonial” principle contributed to the formation during the 12th century of a number of local princely tables assigned to one or another branch of the extensive family tree of the descendants of Yaroslav the Wise. Not only the scions of the princely house of Rurikovich sought to take root and settle in a certain territory, but also the local aristocracy was interested in such a “princeship” of their land, which contributed to the development of new and more complex forms of land and political relations between feudal lords. The grandchildren and great-grandsons of Izyaslav Yaroslavich, after the loss of the Kyiv table and later the Vladimir-Volyn throne, settled in the Turovo-Pinsk principality, and then completely left the political arena. The descendants of Svyatoslav Yaroslavich took root in the Chernigov, Ryazan and Murom lands. The scions of the princely house of Vsevolod Yaroslavich were assigned tables in Pereslavl South, in the Rostov and Smolensk lands. Their ownership rights to these lands were no longer disputed by anyone. Therefore, in the 12th century. A sharp struggle unfolded for three all-Russian tables, in which not a single princely branch settled: in Kyiv, Novgorod and Galich.
The main table in Kyiv was traditionally occupied by the eldest in the Rurik family, he was called the “Grand Duke”. But the concept of “seniority” or “seniority” has undergone significant changes in content over time: if earlier the eldest of the descendants of Yaroslav the Wise actually became the Grand Duke of Kyiv, then in the 12th century. The Grand Dukes of Kyiv were often the younger scions of an extensive princely house. So, in 1113 After the death of Svyatopolk Izyaslavich, an uprising broke out in Kyiv against the princely administration, large boyars and moneylenders. The people of Kiev, contrary to the “regular” order, invited not Oleg Svyatoslavich to the grand-ducal throne, but his cousin VLADIMIR VSEVOLODICH MONOMACH (1113-1125). The authority of this prince was so great that during his reign no one tried to challenge the legality of his reign in Kyiv.
After Vladimir Monomakh, the Kiev table passed to his eldest son MSTISLAV THE GREAT (1125-1132), who, after the death of Oleg Svyatoslavich, was in fact the eldest in the offspring of Yaroslav the Wise. Father and son still managed to maintain the unity of the Russian lands for some time. But after the death of Mstislav Vladimirovich, the relatively unified state fell apart into many parts. It was from this time (1132) that in scientific literature it is customary to begin the period of political fragmentation in Russia. Mstislav the Great handed over his father's table to his brother YAROPOLK (1132-1139). In accordance with the “regular” order, after the death of Yaropolk, the Kiev table was supposed to alternately pass to his younger brothers Vyacheslav, Andrei, Yuri (known in later times as Dolgoruky).
However, the situation around the great reign of Kyiv in the middle - second half of the 12th century. became very complicated, because Several parties began to lay claim to it. Firstly, the Olgovichi, children of Oleg Svyatoslavich, the elder cousin of Vladimir Monomakh, whom he bypassed in 1113. Secondly, the children of Vladimir Monomakh, brothers of Mstislav the Great. Thirdly, the children of Mstislav the Great himself, who sought to turn the Kiev table into their ancestral possession. The struggle went on with varying success, the parties were at enmity with each other, and entered into temporary alliances with each other.
VSEVOLOD OLGOVICH (1139-1146) managed to regain the great reign in Kyiv for some time. But an attempt to restore the position of his house in Kyiv and transfer the table to his younger brother Igor Olgovich failed. Igor was killed by the rebels of Kiev. Later, from time to time, relying on allied forces, most often represented by Polovtsian detachments, the Olgovichs managed to reach the Kyiv table, but their positions gradually weakened. Of the Monomakhovichs, only YURI DOLGORUKY (1155-1157) had a chance to sit in Kyiv as Grand Duke. His brother Vyacheslav took the side of the Mstislavichs and ruled as co-ruler together with his nephew IZYASLAV MSTISLAVIC (1146-1154). The Mstislavichs failed to turn the senior table into ancestral property, because there was also no unity in their camp. The children and grandchildren of Izyaslav Mstislavich and his younger brother Rostislav Mstislavich competed for the senior table. At the same time, the former, with the rights of “fatherland,” owned the Vladimir-Volyn principality, and the latter, the Smolensk principality. The same main princely forces took part in the relay race for two other all-Russian tables - Novgorod and Galich.
The grounds for their claims were also different. Thus, Yuri Dolgoruky, contesting the table in Kyiv from his nephew Izyaslav Mstislavich in 1154, said: “Kyiv is my fatherland, not yours.” To which Izyaslav replied: “You yourself were imprisoned in Kyiv, and the people of Kiev imprisoned me.” The son of Mstislav the Great opposed the “patrimonial” order of replacing the Kyiv table with the decision of the Kyiv veche. Vsevolod Olgovich, in turn, proclaimed in 1146: “Vladimir planted Mstislav, his son, after himself in Kiev, and Mstislav Yaropolk, his brother, and now I say: if God takes me, then I will give Kiev to my brother Igor after me.” ". Vsevolod openly appealed to the “next” order of replacing the Kyiv princely table.
During this fierce struggle for the senior table between various branches of the princely house of Yaroslav the Wise during the 12th century. Many princes visited it. Kyiv was repeatedly taken by armed force. The capital city was burning in fires and was being plundered by troops. All this led to the decline of the ancient capital of Kievan Rus. At the end of the 12th century. the heirs of Vladimir Monomakh in the third and fourth generations jointly proclaimed Vsevolod the Big Nest the eldest in his family, who after this officially accepted the title of Grand Duke: “all the brothers in Vladimir’s tribe placed eldership on him.” From that time on, the great reign increasingly began to be associated with Vladimir on the Klyazma.
Sometimes in the literature the definition “specific” is used to designate this period. The famous Russian historian of the last century, S.F. Platonov, considered the hereditary land property of princes as political rulers to be “destinies.” This property, according to the type of management, was closely related to the estate, and sometimes completely turned into it. Thus, the principality, as the inheritance of this or that prince, became his patrimony, which he could dispose of at his own discretion. In our time, the transformation of princely appanages into estates is associated with the widespread spread of princely and boyar land ownership.
Feudal fragmentation was not an exclusively Russian phenomenon; it was experienced by all the early feudal states of Western Europe in the 11th-12th centuries: the empire of Charlemagne, France, England, Germany, Byzantium. The development of economic and social relations everywhere followed a general scenario. The early feudal state, which was Kievan Rus, at the beginning of the 12th century. broke up into a number of separate state formations - principalities and lands.
In the scientific literature there is no consensus on the form of the political structure of the Russian land during this period. L.N. Gumilyov, from the standpoint of his theory of ethnogenesis, speaks of the complete collapse of the Old Russian ethnos and state in the 12-13th centuries. Starting from the works of Russian historians N.I. Kostomarov, V.O. Klyuchevsky and until today, concepts such as “political federation” or “feudal federation” are used in relation to the political structure of Russian lands during the period of feudal fragmentation. Indeed, in the absence of a unified political power, the Russian Orthodox Church remained, governed by the Kyiv Metropolitan and local bishops; a single ancient Russian language and culture; general legislation based on the provisions of "Russian Truth". The rulers of all these territories were in close family relationships. All these scattered lands and principalities were connected by thousands of threads. Even the struggle for three all-Russian tables played a unifying role. The Polotsk land was the first to become a separate reign back in the time of St. Vladimir. In 1154 there were five princely tables according to the number of sons of Yaroslav the Wise: Kyiv, Pereslavl South, Chernigov, Smolensk, Vladimir Volynsky. Novgorod, after the death of the local prince Vladimir Yaroslavich, was ruled by the governors of the Grand Duke of Kyiv; Tmutarakan depended on Chernigov, Rostov and Suzdal on Pereslavl South. At the beginning of the 12th century. The Russian land broke up into 15 lands and principalities: Kiev, Pereslavl, Turovo-Pinsk, Smolensk, Chernigov, Ryazan, Murom, Vladimir-Suzdal, Galician, Vladimir-Volyn. To this list should be added the above-mentioned Novgorod land and the Principality of Polotsk, as well as the distant Tmutarakan principality, which was heading towards its decline.
At the beginning of the 13th century. the number of individual principalities and lands grew to 50 in the 14th century. there were already about 250 of them. Occasionally, principalities united under the rule of one prince or one princely branch, for example: Galicia-Volyn, Murom-Ryazan. But in most cases, fragmentation occurred within the framework of already established state entities. A number of new tables arose in the Vladimir-Volyn, Vladimir-Suzdal, and Chernigov principalities, which was a consequence of the need to endow numerous princely offspring with their father's inheritance. This is how the Novgorod-Seversky Putivl, Lutsk, and later Nizhny Novgorod, Tver, Moscow, Uglich principalities and many others appeared. At the beginning of the 14th century. Pskov land was separated from the Novgorod territory. As the process of feudal fragmentation deepened, the number of new state formations grew noticeably. Some of them were especially large and strong. Thus, old Kiev was replaced by new centers of state life: in the southwest of Rus' they became Galich and Vladimir Volynsky, in the northeast - Vladimir on Klyazma, in the northwestern Russian lands - Novgorod.
Southwestern Rus'
This concept is usually applied in relation to the territory of the Galician and Volyn principalities during the period of feudal fragmentation. Southwestern Rus' covered a vast territory, including the Carpathian region, the upper reaches of the Dniester, Prut and Southern Bug rivers. This land was in close proximity to Hungary and Poland. From the south stretched the Danube region and the outskirts of the Black Sea steppe, the seat of successive nomadic hordes. In the north-west, this part of the Russian lands bordered the Polotsk, Turovo-Pinsk and Kyiv principalities. It was this geographical location that largely determined the nature of its economic development. The mild climate, fertile chernozem soils, vast river valleys and large forests contributed to the early development of this territory and the successful development of arable farming and fishing. Significant deposits of rock salt in the area of Przemysl and Kolomyia and red slate near Ovruch not only met domestic needs, but were also developed for export. Ovru slate whorls arrived in the nearest Russian lands, Poland and Bulgaria. The border position and the developed system of river and land routes had a beneficial effect on the development foreign trade. The western “brother” of the great route “from the Varangians to the Greeks” passed through this land, the route that connected the Baltic and Black Seas through the river system: Vistula, Western Bug, Dniester. One land route through Lutsk, Vladimir Volynsky, Zavikhost, Krakow led from Kiev to Poland, the other, further south, through the Carpathians, connected Russian lands with Hungary, from where it was easy to get to other Western European countries.
In the 12-13th centuries. These lands experienced significant economic growth, which was accompanied by the development of crafts and the growth of cities and urban populations. The largest cities at that time were: Galich, Vladimir, Lvov, Kholm, Drogichin, Berestye, Przemysl, Lutsk, Peresopnitsa, etc. Here, patrimony - large private land ownership - became widespread quite early. Economic development territory contributed to strengthening the position of the local boyar aristocracy, which tried to exert a significant influence on the course of the political life of their land. The political development of Southwestern Rus' in the 12-13th centuries. followed the path of the formation of two principalities: Galician and Volyn, the history of which largely determined the subsequent fate of not only the southwestern, but also the southern Russian lands, in particular Kyiv. The Vladimir-Volyn principality was the first to take shape. The city itself was founded at the end of the 10th century. the baptist of Rus' Vladimir the Saint as a border fortress in the west of Russian lands. By the end of the 11th century. he turned into Big City, the center of a certain district - the Volyn land.
According to the Yaroslav row (1054), Vladimir went to one of the younger sons of Yaroslav the Wise - Igor, after whose death a fierce struggle broke out for the possession of this princely table between his son Davyd Igorevich and his uncle the Kiev prince Izyaslav Yaroslavich, which ended in the victory of the latter. Izyaslav's grandson, Yaroslav Svyatopolchich, was subsequently married to the granddaughter of Vladimir Monomakh, daughter of Mstislav the Great. In 1118 A conflict broke out between Yaroslav Svyatopolchich and Vladimir Monomakh, which led to the loss of the Volyn land by the descendants of Izyaslav Yaroslavich. V.N. Tatishchev writes about this: “Yaroslavets, Prince of Vladimir, having forgotten his oath of dishonor to Vladimir, sent away his wife. What Vladimir was offended by, Having gathered an army, he went to Vladimir. But Yaroslavets, having seen him, without waiting for him, went to Poland, to his sister and son-in-law. Vladimir left his son Andrei in Vladimir." So, since 1118 The princely table in Vladimir in Volyn finally passed to the descendants of the third son of Yaroslav the Wise - Vsevolod; the children and grandchildren of Mstislav the Great and his son Izyaslav sat here. In the 12th century princes from this princely house often occupied the Kiev grand-ducal table, and Vladimir’s connection with the capital of the Russian lands was quite strong: the Kyiv princes disposed of the Vladimir table at their own discretion.
The territory of the Vladimir-Volyn principality finally took shape in the second half of the 12th - early 13th centuries. The struggle began to expand influence on the neighboring Principality of Galicia and to take possession of the grand-ducal table. The most famous of the Volyn princes of that time was ROMAN MSTISLAVICH (1170-1205), the great-grandson of Mstislav the Great, who in 1199. sat down on the Galician table. Having united his lands with the Principality of Galicia, he created a large state entity, not inferior in size to many Western European states.
The Galician land took shape later on the territory of the former volosts of the Kiev land: Przemysl and Terebovl, which since the time of Yaroslav the Wise were in the possession of the Rostislavichs, the descendants of his eldest son, the Novgorod prince Vladimir, who died two years before the death of his parent in 1052. This branch of the Rurikovichs, who became outcasts after the death of their father, lost preemptive rights to the prestigious Novgorod and senior Kiev tables and settled on the southwestern outskirts of Kievan Rus. Galich, as a new center of the emerging state territory, stood out among other urban centers in the 40s. 12th century, when in the hands of the first Galician prince VLADIMIR VOLODAREVICH (1141-1153), the grandson of Rostislav Vladimirovich, all power over the neighboring Galich Zvenigorod, Przemysl and Terebovl was concentrated.
His main opponent was his nephew, Prince of Zvenigorod Ivan Rostislavich Berladnik. In 1144 The Galician boyars, dissatisfied with their prince Vladimir Volodarevich, took advantage of his departure to hunt and invited the Zvenigorod prince to the Galician table. Upon his return, Vladimir Volodarevich besieged his capital city, forcing it to surrender. Ivan Rostislavich, having lost Zvenigorod, was forced to flee on the Danube in the town of Berlad, from the name of which he received his nickname. Subsequently, Ivan Berladnik, having become an outcast, tried more than once to return to the Galician land, but Vladimir Volodarevich successfully withstood the opposition of the Galician boyar aristocracy, the pressure of the Grand Duke of Kiev and kept the united territory of the Galician principality in his hands, which he transferred, dying, to his son Yaroslav .
The flourishing of the Galician principality is associated with the name of YAROSLAV VLADIMIROVICH OSMOMYSL (1153-1187). He received his nickname “eight-minded” for his extensive knowledge, intelligence and erudition. In addition, this Galician prince showed himself to be a skillful politician who was able not only to hold his father’s table in his hands, but also to successfully resist hostile forces in the person of the same cousin Ivan Berladnik, the Grand Duke of Kiev and the local boyars. In 1158 Ivan Rostislavich, relying on the military assistance of the Kyiv prince Davyd Igorevich and the Polovtsians allied with him, undertook a major campaign against Galich. But Yaroslav Vladimirovich suddenly took possession of Kiev, thereby forcing the Grand Duke of Kyiv to abandon the support of the former Zvenigorod prince.
The fact that Yaroslav Vladimirovich had rather complicated relations with the local boyars is evidenced by the conflict of 1173-1174. For political reasons, during his father’s lifetime, he was married to the daughter of the powerful ruler of North-Eastern Rus', Yuri Dolgoruky. But him family life Things didn’t work out with Olga Yuryevna. The chronicles brought to us information that he had a long love affair with a certain Anastasia, with whom he had a son, Oleg. It was this son, adopted on the side, that the Galician prince gave clear preference to his legal heir Vladimir. This family conflict was dressed in political form. The Galician boyars took the side of Olga Yuryevna and her son Vladimir. The prince was detained along with his supporters, and the prince's mistress was publicly burned. This is how the chronicler describes this tragic event: “The Galicians laid fire, burned her, and sent her son into captivity, and brought the prince to the cross so that he could really have a princess. And so they settled it.”
But the oath given by the prince publicly did not restore peace and harmony in the princely house. Vladimir Yaroslavich hid from his father’s dislike, first in the neighboring Volyn land, then with relatives in Suzdal and, finally, on Chernigov land in Putivl. In the last of them, on the prince’s table, sat the famous hero of “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign,” Igor Svyatoslavich (grandson of Oleg Svyatoslavich), married to the sister of the disgraced prince Euphrosyne Yaroslavna. He tried to reconcile his brother-in-law with his father-in-law. However, before his death, Yaroslav Vladimirovich publicly proclaimed the illegitimate Oleg “Nastasiich” as his successor. A rebellion broke out again in the Galician land: Oleg Yaroslavich was expelled from his father’s table, who returned to the legitimate princely son.
The image of Vladimir Yaroslavich Galitsky is colorfully and convincingly captured in Borodin's opera "Prince Igor". He was not distinguished by particular piety, decency or zeal in state affairs. The chronicler noted: “Volodimir reigned in the land of Galich. And he was partial to drinking heavily and did not like to consult with his husbands,” and further, “having loved a wife or whose daughter, he took it by force.” Mired in drunkenness and debauchery, the prince was finally unable to hold his table. The reason for the prince’s new conflict with local society was his relationship with a married woman: “he took the priest’s wife.” The Galician boyars threatened him with reprisals similar to what they inflicted on his father and his mistress.
Vladimir Yaroslavich, together with the former priest and her sons, found refuge in Hungary, which opened the way for the Hungarian regiments to Russian soil. The Hungarian king, having imprisoned the Galician prince in a tower, moved with his army to Galich. Some Galicians hastily invited the Volyn prince Roman Mstislavich to the princely table. At the city walls there was another contender for reign in Galich - the son of Ivan Berladnik, who had died by that time, Rostislav. With the help of force, the Hungarian king occupied it in 1188. Galich, for the first time in the history of this land, placed his son Andrei, later known as Andrei the Second, on the princely table.
In 1189 Vladimir Yaroslavich fled from Hungarian captivity to Germany. He turned to Frederick Barbarossa for help and, with the support of his relative, the ruler of North-Eastern Rus', Vsevolod the Big Nest, he regained his father’s lost table. But his reign was short-lived. In 1199 he died without leaving legal heirs. The princely branch of the descendants of the eldest son of Yaroslav the Wise ceased to exist. The Volyn prince Roman Mstislavich took advantage of this circumstance. He occupied the vacant Galician table, while remaining the prince of Volyn. This is how the territories of two neighboring principalities were united under the rule of one ruler, and a large state formation appeared in the southwest of the Russian lands - the Galician-Volyn principality. In 1203 Roman Mstislavich captured Kyiv and took the title of Grand Duke.
Western European sources called Roman Mstislavich the “Russian king”; he was well known outside of Rus'. The Ipatiev Chronicle preserves a lengthy epitaph for this prince, which emphasizes his political weight and social position. She characterizes him as: “the autocrat of all Rus',” who overcame all the filthy peoples with “wisdom of mind,” “walked according to the commandments of God, rushed at the filthy peoples like a lion, was angry like a lynx, destroyed them like a crocodile, swooped down on them like an eagle, was brave as a tour." In addition to this, the author of “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” spoke of Roman Mstislavich as a falcon who “soars high above the earth.”
In accordance with his position, he sought to actively participate in Western European politics of the time. In 1205 Roman Mstislavich died on the banks of the Vistula near Zavichost during his campaign in Lesser Poland. In Galich, his widow Princess Anna was left with two young children: the eldest of them, Daniil, was barely four years old. She not only failed to maintain the unity of the Galician-Volyn principality, but she also had difficulty maintaining her position in Volyn. Further, the history of these two southwestern lands again diverges for a certain time. This page in the history of Southwestern Rus' is characterized by active interference in the internal affairs of its western neighbors - Hungary and Poland. At first, the rulers of these states provided support and military assistance to one of the warring parties, and then moved on to the open seizure of territory and the main princely tables.
A fierce struggle began for the princely table in Galich, in which various forces took part. Against the widow of Roman Mstislavich with her young children, the grandchildren of Yaroslav Osmomysl, the Chernigov Igorevichs (children of Igor Svyatoslavich and Euphrosyne Yaroslavna), and the Hungarian king Andrei II, who had already visited Galich once, entered this fight. At first, fate was favorable to the Igorevichs, who occupied Galich in 1206. and for five years they ruled the territory of Galicia and part of the Volyn principalities with varying success. At the same time, they relied on that part of local society that was hostile towards the Hungarians, whose military assistance the widow of Roman Mstislavich tried to take advantage of. However, brutal repressions against the local aristocracy by the Igorevichs not only strengthened the position of the pro-Hungarian opposition, but also led to a tragic end: in 1211. the sons of Igor Svyatoslavich were captured and hanged in Galich.
Poland and Hungary joined forces in 1214. in Speshi (Spisi) they concluded an allied treaty, which determined the spheres of their influence in Southwestern Rus': the power of Poland extended to Volyn, Hungary - to the Galician land. The agreement was sealed by the dynastic marriage of the three-year-old daughter of the Krakow prince Leshko the White and the five-year-old son of the Hungarian king Andrew the Second, Koloman (Kalman), who was proclaimed King of Galicia. Thus, from 1214 to 1219, power in Galich was in the hands of pro-Hungarian boyars, who ruled the land on behalf of Andrew the Second and his young son.
Territorial disagreements between the allies persisted, which brought a completely new face to the princely table in Galich. Leshko Krakow invited MSTISLAV MSTISLAVICH THE UDALY (1219 - 1228) to the Galician land. This prince came from the Smolensk house of Rostislav Mstislavich and also belonged to the descendants of Mstislav the Great; he was the second cousin of Roman Mstislavich. Until this time, Mstislav Udaloy was on the princely table in Novgorod. He was a brave warrior and an experienced commander. With his squad, he successfully repelled the attacks of the Hungarians and their allies, so for nine years he successfully reigned in Galich. He married one of his daughters to the son of the late Roman Mstislavich Daniil, another to Yaroslav Vsevolodich (father of Alexander Nevsky), the third to the Polovtsian Khan Kotyan, the last to the third son of Andrei the Second, the Hungarian prince Andrei.
The dynastic union with the ruler of the Volyn land, Daniil Romanovich, did not, however, lead to the reunification of these neighboring principalities. Before his death, Mstislav Mstislavich handed over the table in Galich to his other son-in-law, Prince Andrei. The chronicler writes that the Galician boyars, who strengthened their positions during the Hungarian rule, advised him: “if you give it to the prince, then when you want, you can take it from him, if you give it to Daniel, then your Galich will never be,” but the rest of the inhabitants "they wanted Daniel." However, after the death of Mstislav Mstislavich, from 1228 to 1233, Galich again returned to the control of Andrei II’s henchmen. During this long period of Galician history, the widow Anna and her son Daniel returned to Galich from time to time, and then lost it again. So after the reprisal against the Igorevichs in 1211. Some Galicians invited young Daniil to reign, but the local boyars could not find common language with his mother, drove her out of the city, and after her the little prince left the table. After this, for the first time in Russian history, a boyar named Vladislav sat on the princely table. This was in 1213 and his stay on the table was short-lived. But this fact in itself is remarkable: it speaks of the strength, power and political claims of the local boyar aristocracy, which no longer needed strong princely power. Daniil Romanovich finally returned to the Galician table and strengthened his position here only in 1234.
The Volyn land was not united; by the beginning of the 13th century, it retained a number of small principalities that were owned by cousins Roman Mstislavich, the children of his uncle Yaroslav Izyaslavich Lutsky - Ingvar and Mstislav. Taking advantage of the death of Roman Mstislavich, they tried to expand their own possessions and strengthen their position in the Volyn land. Ingvar Yaroslavich married his daughter to Leshka Krakowski and acquired a reliable ally in him. The Polish side also had its own claims regarding the neighboring Volyn lands.
In 1206 The Igorevichs, on the advice of the Galician boyars, placed their brother Svyatoslav on the Vladimir table. Anna and her children took refuge in Poland for a while. In 1209 At the invitation of the Lutsk and Peresopnytsia princes, Leshko Krakowsky undertook a large campaign against the Volyn land, as a result of which Svyatoslav Igorevich was captured and taken to Poland. The Polish prince, relying on small appanage princes and the anti-Hungarian opposition, extended his power to the entire Volyn land. The widow Anna first begged Leshka for Berestye for her youngest son Vasilko, then tried to get other cities. After the conclusion of the Treaty of Spesh in 1214. she returned with her eldest son to Vladimir-Volynsky, Vasilko remained in Berestye. With difficulty, the widow kept the capital city from the encroachments of other appanage princes.
After his marriage in 1219. Daniel finally established himself in Vladimir. However, not the entire territory of the Volyn principality was in his hands. Despite his youth, he pursued an active policy for the return of western lands that were under Polish rule. His father-in-law Mstislav Mstislavich Udaloy was not interested in uniting and strengthening the neighboring Volyn principality, so he actively restrained Daniel’s actions and provided support to the appanage princes.
In the second quarter of the 13th century the situation changed dramatically. Neighboring rulers left the political arena: in 1227. Leshko Bely died in 1228. - Mstislav Mstislavich Udaloy, in 1233. - Prince Andrew. In Poland and Hungary, neighboring Volyn, a struggle for power began between the heirs. All this played into the hands of the matured Daniil Romanovich. In 1238 he finally established himself in Galich, the unity of the Galician-Volyn principality was restored. In 1240 Daniil Romanovich occupied Kyiv. But in the same year, Kyiv and Southwestern Rus' were devastated by Mongol-Tatar troops.
During the reign of his descendants, Lev Danilovich and Yuri Lvovich, some progress was made in unifying the southwestern lands. But in the twenties of the next century, activity increased again and the territorial claims of neighboring rulers were revived, although the composition of these states changed. In the territory inhabited by Lithuanian tribes, a new state formation was born. By the 60s. 14th century The Galician-Volyn principality ceased to exist. Volyn, together with Kiev and Chernigov, became part of Lithuania, and the neighboring Galician land went to Poland. A new page has begun in the history of Southwestern Rus'.
Northeastern Rus'
In the scientific literature, this concept, in turn, is applied to the Vladimir-Suzdal principality during the times of feudal fragmentation. Northeastern Rus' also included a vast territory located between the Volga and Oka rivers, as well as the Beloozero region. Huge forest areas were rich in fur-bearing and game animals; the developed river network abounded in fish and was convenient for commercial shipping. Here, during the times of Kievan Rus, through a complex system of portages in the remote Valdai forests, the Volga-Baltic branch of the great trade route “from the Varangians to the Greeks” was actively functioning, connecting the Baltic region with the Volga region and Central Asia.
A continuous array of deciduous forests was inhabited by Finno-Ugric tribes: Merya, Muroma, Ves, Mordovians. They did not know agriculture and were mainly engaged in hunting and fishing. The Slavic colonization flow of the Krivichi, Novgorod Slovenes and Vyatichi, advancing from the south and southwest of the Russian lands, was for a long time held back by centuries-old impenetrable forests and the complexity of agricultural development of this area. Initially, this land was called “Zalesskaya”, because was located behind a huge forest - the “great forest”, or Rostov, after the name of the ancient city, located on the other side of the Vyatic forests on the path of the initial Slavic colonization. At the turn of the 11th and 12th centuries. The colonization flow has noticeably intensified. Impenetrable forests served as a reliable natural barrier against Polovtsian raids; the fertile chernozem soils of the Suzdal Opolye contributed to the development of agriculture; undeveloped places attracted pioneers with large reserves of fur-bearing animals; the developed river network stimulated the development of trade with Novgorod, Volga Bulgaria and the countries of the East. The undeveloped spaces and their riches were so great that colonization flows from Novgorod and the Rostov-Suzdal land did not meet immediately. Fierce disputes over these territories arose only at the turn of the 12th and 13th centuries. Rostov and Suzdal already existed in the 11th century. as outposts of Slavic colonization. Initially, mayors sent by the Kyiv princes sat here. The encroachment of the territory began only at the turn of the 11th and 12th centuries. Prince Vladimir Monomakh, who was sitting in Pereslavl South, received Rostov as his reign from his father Vsevolod Yaroslavich. His interests in this territory collided with the interests of the Chernigov princes, descendants of his uncle Svyatoslav Yaroslavich, who owned neighboring Murom and Ryazan. But the first Suzdal prince should be considered his son YURI VLADIMIROVICH DOLGORUKY (1120 or 1125 - 1157). Under him, significant economic growth and active political development of this land were observed.
The Rostov-Suzdal land bordered on Novgorod, Smolensk, Chernigov and Murom-Ryazan principalities. The real threat existed from the Volga Bulgaria, which, despite the fact that it was separated from the Rostov land by large forests, had convenient river approaches through the Oka and Klyazma basin and constantly carried out unexpected raids with the aim of robbing and capturing prisoners, who were then transported to slave markets. markets of the East. After one of the sudden raids in 1108. Vladimir Monomakh built a wooden fortress on the banks of the Klyazma and named it after himself. Thus began the history of the future capital city of North-Eastern Rus'. His son Yuri Dolgoruky built and fortified Yuryev-Polskaya, Dmitrov, Kideksha, Zvenigorod, Pereyaslavl Zalessky, with the help of which he successfully restrained the penetration of the Volga neighbors into his land.
During his reign, this territory began to be called the Suzdal land after the capital city of Suzdal, where Yuri Dolgoruky moved with his court. But the position of Rostov, as the oldest city of this land, and its boyars continued to remain high. In the last years of his reign, Yuri Vladimirovich became involved in an active struggle for the grand ducal table with his nephew Izyaslav, the son of Mstislav the Great, and his older brother Vyacheslav. At first, he took the side of Svyatoslav Olgovich, the main opponent of the Grand Duke of Kyiv Izyaslav Mstislavich. Thanks to this union, the first mention of Moscow was preserved on the pages of the chronicle. In 1147 Yuri Vladimirovich invited Svyatoslav Olgovich and his son to seal the union agreement at the estate, taken shortly before from the boyar Kuchka: “Come to me, brother, in Moskov.” On April 4, the allies met and exchanged gifts. The Suzdal prince arranged a feast: “Yuri ordered to arrange a strong dinner and do great honor to them and gave Svyatoslav many gifts.” In 1156 On the site of the former estate, a wooden fortress was built, which later became the capital of the Russian state.
From allied assistance to one of the Olgovichs in their struggle for the grand ducal table, Yuri Dolgoruky moved on to active action. He took over in 1155. Kyiv, took the title of Grand Duke. It was then that his historical nickname probably arose - “Long Hand”, “Dolgoruky”. The prince left North-Eastern Rus' forever and moved with his family to Kyiv. There he died suddenly in 1157. after a feast with a noble nobleman. It is believed that the prince was poisoned by ill-wishers. At the time of his death, an uprising broke out in Kiev against the princely administration, consisting mainly of immigrants from the north-east of Rus': “A lot of evil happened that day, his red court was plundered, and his other courtyards beyond the Dnieper were plundered... they beat the Suzdal people according to cities and villages, and their property was plundered."
V.N. Tatishchev wrote about him: “This great prince was of considerable height, fat, with a white face; his eyes were not great, his nose was long and crooked; he was small, a great lover of wives, sweet foods and drinks, more about fun than about he was diligent in reprisals and warfare, but all of it consisted in the power and supervision of his nobles and favorites.” It is difficult to say to what extent this characteristic, found by a historian on the pages of an ancient chronicle, reflects the actual situation. The feasts of Yuri Dolgoruky are repeatedly reported in chronicles. Together with the prince, a large family and his boyars went to Southern Rus'. It was the latter who were attacked by the people of Kiev after the death of the prince.
Only one of his sons expressed a desire to return back to Northeastern Rus'. This was his eldest son from his first marriage to the Polovtsian princess ANDREY BOGOLYUBSKY (1157 - 1174). In 1155 he left the Vyshgorod table assigned to him and went against his father’s will to Vladimir Zalessky. The death of his parent found him there, in the Vladimir-Suzdal land, where, at the invitation of the Suzdal and Rostov boyars, he soon sat down at the table abandoned by his father. A few years later, Andrei Yuryevich expelled his four brothers, nephews and his father’s old squad from the Vladimir-Suzdal land who had returned from Kyiv. He concentrated all power in North-Eastern Rus' in his hands: “He arranged all this, wanting to be an autocrat in the entire Suzdal land.”
Andrei Yuryevich settled with his court in Vladimir, decorated it with magnificent buildings (such as the Assumption Cathedral, the Golden Gate), and erected a princely palace in Bogolyubovo, from the name of which he received his nickname. Even under his father, leaving Vyshgorod, the prince took away the local miraculous icon Mother of God, which later became known as “Vladimirskaya”. Trying to raise the importance of his capital city in comparison with the oldest cities of Rostov and Suzdal, he achieved the creation of a separate Vladimir bishopric next to the existing diocese in Rostov by that time. Later, Andrei Bogolyubsky set out to remove the local diocese from subordination to the Kyiv metropolitan and establish his own metropolitanate in his land. But this initiative of the Vladimir prince was not supported by the secular and ecclesiastical authorities of Constantinople.
He was an energetic and talented ruler. Under him, North-Eastern Rus' noticeably strengthened, the borders of the principality moved east, which led to new clashes with Volga Bulgaria. Major campaign 1164 temporarily averted the threat from this Volga neighbor. But disputes with Novgorod intensified over adjacent territories and tribute collected from them. In 1169 The Vladimir-Suzdal army, together with its allies, set off on a campaign against Novgorod, but they failed to take it. Then the ruler of North-Eastern Rus' found a successful way to put pressure on Novgorod by blocking the flow of goods in Torzhok (New Trade), through which grain came from the south to the Novgorod land. This led to higher prices on the Novgorod grain market and to famine. This technique was used by the Vladimir princes at a later time to exert political pressure on the neighboring city. The claims of the Vladimir prince in relation to Kyiv were not as active as those of his father. In 1169 Andrei Bogolyubsky's son Mstislav captured Kyiv and plundered it. But the Vladimir prince refused to move to Kyiv. He limited himself to putting his protege in Kyiv. The two subsequent campaigns in Southern Rus' were not so successful. The campaign of 1174 ended ingloriously. just added fuel to the fire. Dissatisfaction with the prince's autocratic policies was brewing within local society. The opposition first made itself felt during the preparations for the campaign against Volga Bulgaria in 1173. The gathering of troops and allies was scheduled at the mouth of the Oka, but the princes unsuccessfully waited for several days for their boyars, who in every possible way delayed the time of their appearance. As the chronicler aptly noted, they were “not walking.” Thus, the campaign was disrupted. And in the next year 1174. A bloody drama broke out in the Bogolyubsky princely palace.
Its participants were noble boyars Yakim Kuchkovich, Peter “Kuchkov son-in-law”, princely housekeeper Anbal; only about 20 people. On a dark June night they carried out a cruel reprisal against their prince. The conspiracy was planned in advance: the housekeeper removed the weapons from the prince's bedchamber. Yakim Kuchkovich delivered a fiery speech, rousing those gathered to active action: “The day of that execution, and tomorrow for us; and let us think about this prince!” For courage, a lot of alcohol was drunk. The ugly murder of the unarmed prince began.
The chronicle story colorfully told about the bloody drama in the Bogolyubsky Palace. In our time, a pathological analysis of the remains of the murdered prince was carried out. A well-known specialist in this field, Prof. D.G. Rokhlin recreated a detailed picture of what was happening: “They chopped not only a man lying down, but, of course, completely unable to defend himself, apparently unconscious, bleeding, they chopped for some time, must have already been a corpse” and further: “This ", of course, does not happen either in single combat or in battle. This is an attack by several people armed with different weapons for a specific purpose - not wounding, even if serious and subsequently fatal, but killing right there on the spot." The murder of the prince caused a number of opposition protests in Bogolyubovo and Vladimir against the princely administration.
V.N. Tatishchev wrote about him: “expand the city of Vladimir and multiply all kinds of inhabitants in it, like merchants, cunning handicraftsmen and various artisans. He was brave in the army, and there were few princes like him, but the world is more than "He loved war... he was small in stature, but broad and strong, with black, curly hair, a high forehead, large and bright eyes. He lived 63 years." The famous anthropologist M.M. Gerasimov reconstructed the appearance of this extraordinary ruler of North-Eastern Rus' from the skull.
Two of his sons died during his time, and the only son who survived his father, Georgiy Andreevich, was later the ruler of Georgia (husband of the Georgian Queen Tamara). After the death of Andrei Bogolyubsky, the princely table became a bone of contention among his closest relatives. The severity of the conflict was determined by the fact that this struggle was greatly influenced by residents of the largest cities of North-Eastern Rus'. The main contenders for replacing the princely table were: Andrei Yuryevich's nephews Mstislav and Yaropolk Rostislavich and his siblings Mikhail and Vsevolod, born from the second marriage of Yuri Dolgoruky to a Byzantine princess. On the side of the former stood the residents of the older cities of Rostov and Suzdal, disadvantaged by the rapid rise of Vladimir. The population of the latter sided with the younger Yuryevichs. Disputes over the princely table lasted for several years and often led to open military clashes. June 27, 1177 A decisive battle between the opponents took place near the city of Yuryev, which ended in the victory of Vsevolod Yuryevich. His older brother Mikhail was no longer alive by this time. Vsevolod's nephews were captured and, at the request of the Vladimir people, blinded. The chronicle says that they later miraculously regained their sight. Mstislav Rostislavich Bezoky was later invited to reign in Novgorod, where he died.
It was during the reign of VSEVOLOD YURIEVICH BIG NEST (1176-1212), so named because of his large family, that the position of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality noticeably strengthened and strengthened. The author of “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” wrote about this Vladimir prince: “Grand Duke Vsevolod! Don’t you think of flying from afar to take care of your father’s golden table? You can sweep away the Volga with oars, and scoop up the Don with helmets!” After this ruler of the North Eastern Russia was recognized by the descendants of Vladimir Monomakh as the eldest in the family, he officially accepted the title of Grand Duke.
Vsevolod Yuryevich persistently sought to extend his influence to neighboring Novgorod and the Murom-Ryazan principality. The borders with Novgorod were marked; Torzhok and Volok Lamsky came under their joint management. Residents of the Vladimir-Suzdal land successfully resisted the Novgorodians in the development of the north. Tribute collectors from Vladimir Zalessky successfully hunted in the Pechora and Northern Dvina areas. For a long time, proteges of Vsevolod Yuryevich sat on the Novgorod princely table. Under him, the Murom-Ryazan principality forever lost its independence and became a vassal dependent on Vladimir.
Shortly before the death of Vsevolod the Big Nest, a conflict broke out in his family, which again led to civil strife in the northeast of Rus'. Vsevolod's eldest son, Prince Konstantin of Rostov, by decision of his father, was to take the table in Vladimir after his death, ceding Rostov to his brother Yuri. But Konstantin refused to give his Rostov to his younger brother, which displeased his father. Then Vsevolod Yuryevich convened a representative council, at which he officially proclaimed Yuri the eldest of his descendants, to whom, accordingly, the princely table in Vladimir passed after his death. Offended, Konstantin did not even come to his father’s funeral, which took place shortly after this ill-fated council.
The eldest son of the Vladimir prince did not want to give up his positions and entered into an open armed struggle with his brother for his father’s table. There was a split in the Vsevolodich family. On the side of Konstantin was his brother Svyatoslav, on the side of Yuri - Yaroslav Vsevolodich, the father of the later famous Prince Alexander Nevsky. Open clashes continued with varying success for about four years; the composition of the allies changed frequently. So, Svyatoslav Vsevolodich went over to the side of Yuri and Yaroslav. The Rostislavichs of Smolensk and the Novgorodians with their prince Mstislav Mstislavich the Udal began to support Constantine. The family conflict went beyond the boundaries of the Vladimir-Suzdal land. Friction between Yaroslav Vsevolodich and his father-in-law Mstislav Udaly separated them on opposite sides of the barricades. April 21, 1216 a decisive battle took place on the river. Lipitsa near Yuryev, which ended in the complete victory of Constantine and his allies. Yuri and Yaroslav shamefully fled from the battlefield. Mstislav Mstislavich Udaloy detained his daughter and refused to hand her over to her legal spouse. Konstantin took Vladimir's table.
Soon Konstantin Vsevolodich made peace with his brother and concluded a contract with him in 1217. an agreement according to which the Vladimir table after his death passed to Yuri. The next year, Konstantin died and Yuri Vsevolodich established himself in Vladimir. He continued the active policy towards Volga Bulgaria, which was pursued by his father. The large-scale campaign of 1220, in which all the princes of North-Eastern Rus' took part, ended with the defeat of the Volga neighbor and the conclusion of a peace treaty. The consequence of the successful development of events was the founding of Nizhny Novgorod at the confluence of the Oka and Volga. The next peace treaty was concluded in 1229. for a period of six years. But in 1236 Volga Bulgaria was defeated by the Tatars. Yuri Vsevolodich reigned in Vladimir until his death during an armed clash with the Tatars in 1238. on the river Sit. The threat of foreign conquest loomed over North-Eastern Russia.
Northwestern Rus'
In the north-west of Russian lands lie the vast possessions of Novgorod. In terms of size, the Novgorod land was significantly larger than other Russian principalities. Its territory extended from the Gulf of Finland and Lake Peipsi in the west to the foothills of the Urals in the east; from the Arctic Ocean in the north to the sources of the Volga in the south. Before the arrival of the Slavs (Novgorod Slovenes and Krivichi), Finno-Ugric tribes lived here, who were mainly engaged in hunting and fishing. Slavic colonization contributed to the active development of new lands and their inclusion in the ancient Russian state territory.
The territory of Novgorod land developed gradually. Unfavorable climatic conditions (rainy and cold summers, frequent frosts), poor soils, swamps and huge tracts of deciduous and coniferous forests hampered the development of agriculture. Initially, the most agriculturally convenient areas were developed: river valleys and plots of land reclaimed from deciduous forests. By the beginning of the 12th century. the main core of the Novgorod land was formed (the Novgorod, Pskov and Ladoga lands themselves). These were territories located in the basin of lakes Ilmen, Pskov and Chud, along the rivers Velikaya, Volkhov, Shelon, Lovat, Msta and Mologa. Outside the metropolis to the northeast lay a zone of vast coniferous taiga, rich in game animals. In search of furs, Novgorodians went far into this territory and reached the North. Dvina, White Sea and Pechora. Over time, these territories turned into colonies of Novgorod, the non-Slavic population of which (Vod, Izhora, Chud, Vse) paid tribute with the skins of valuable animals, wax and honey. Here at the turn of the 12th-13th centuries. Novgorod and Vladimir-Suzdal interests collided. In the north-west, the tributaries of Novgorod were the Estonians, Latgalians, and Finns (em).
The specifics of the geographical location largely determined the characteristics of the Novgorod economy. The most important trade routes were located here of Eastern Europe, connecting the North. Europe and the Baltic states with Byzantium and the countries of the East. The most important of them was the path “from the Varangians to the Greeks,” which passed through a system of rivers and portages along the Neva, Lake Ladoga, Volkhov and Ilmen, Lovat and the Dnieper. Military detachments of the Varangians and trade caravans moved along this route to the south and back. Along Msta and portages it is a stone's throw to the sources of the Volga; from there it was possible to get to Volga Bulgaria, Khazaria and other countries of the East. At the northern end of this route stood Ladoga and Novgorod. Kyiv played a huge role in this trade, which even had a court of Novgorod merchants. All this contributed to the active development of foreign trade.
On the other hand, difficulties in the agricultural development of this territory led to the fact that communal land ownership existed here for a long time, and the patrimonial system appeared relatively late. The formation of private land ownership of the boyars began only in the first quarter of the 12th century. The basis of the economic power of the Novgorod boyars was the collection of state revenues (tributes, trade duties) and control over them, active participation in international trade and usury.
For a long time, Novgorod did not experience any external threat. The nomads, who so annoyed the southern principalities, were far away. The local Finno-Ugric tribes, conquered and subject to tribute, could not pose much of a threat. To keep them in obedience, punitive campaigns were launched from time to time. But at the beginning of the 12th century. Due to the dominance of the Polovtsians on the southern outskirts of the Russian lands, the “great road” ceased to function. Volga trade gradually began to pass into the hands of a new neighbor - the Rostov-Suzdal (later Vladimir) principality. From that time on, the western direction became the main one in Novgorod's trade. Trade relations with Sweden, Gotland (an island on the Baltic Sea), and Denmark were not only preserved, but also noticeably intensified. In the middle of the 12th century. in Novgorod there was a trading post of Gotlandic merchants (Gothic court). After the Germans conquered the territory of the Baltic Slavs and founded the city of Lübeck, Novgorod also established close trade relations with the latter. In the second half of the 12th century. German merchants from North German cities (primarily from Lübeck) founded the German Court in Novgorod. Through Lübeck and Gotland, the Novgorodians carried out overseas trade with Central and Western Europe.
In the second half of the 12th century. The foreign policy and international trade of Sweden and Denmark have noticeably intensified. Incited by Rome, Sweden began to conquer the lands lying to the east of its territory (Finland). Here the interests of Novgorod and Sweden collided. In 1164 The Swedes launched an armed campaign with their flotilla of 55 ships to Ladoga to take the city and block the exit of the Novgorodians to the Gulf of Finland. Residents of Novgorod, led by Prince Svyatoslav Rostislavich, completely defeated the Swedes. The enemy fleet lost 43 ships. Up to the 14th century. The Swedes no longer tried to take this Novgorod suburb. Throughout the second half of the 12th century. Novgorodians successfully carried out active actions against the Swedes for maintaining their influence in Eastern Finland.
But at the beginning of the 13th century. The international situation on the shores of the Gulf of Finland deteriorated again due to the beginning of the German conquest in the Eastern Baltic. German and Danish crusaders worked together by the early 20s. 13th century conquered the entire territory inhabited by the Livs and Estonians. A successful winter trip across the ice of the Gulf of Finland to the territory of Eastern Finland (where the fish lived), undertaken in 1227. Novgorodians, led by their prince Yaroslav Vsevolodich, the forced baptism of Karelians temporarily stopped the massive onslaught of the Swedes. But these successful events were no longer able to change the situation and regain lost positions in this area. Thus, at the beginning of the 13th century. Extremely dangerous neighbors appeared on the northwestern border of the Novgorod and Pskov lands. In the same 13th century. Sweden and Denmark captured all the most important trade routes in the Baltic Sea. In accordance with this, the Novgorodians were forced to abandon overseas trade on their ships and began to carry out large trade operations directly in Novgorod itself.
The special position of Novgorod within Kievan Rus was caused by the fact that the first Varangian detachments with their leaders (Igor and Oleg) moved from there to Kyiv. Therefore, a tradition arose very early according to which the Grand Duke of Kiev, as the Novgorod governor (posadnik), planted his eldest son in Novgorod. At that time, the position of mayor did not exist separately from the princely institution. The delimitation of the powers of these two institutions occurred much later (at the end of the 11th century). Thus, the Kiev prince could exercise control over the functioning of the most important trade artery. Vladimir the Holy sent his eldest son Vysheslav to Novgorod, after whose death the Novgorod table was occupied by Yaroslav the Wise. In turn, Yaroslav the Wise, having taken possession of Kiev, left his eldest son Ilya in Novgorod, after whom the Novgorod throne passed to his other son Vladimir. VLADIMIR YAROSLAVICH (1034-1052) was not able to visit the Kiev table, because. he died two years before the death of his parent (1054). Because of this, his children and grandchildren became outcasts among their relatives.
During the time of Vladimir the Saint, two-thirds of the tribute annually received from the Novgorod territories went to the capital Kyiv. One third remained in Novgorod. Yaroslav Vladimirovich was the first to refuse to fulfill this demand: “All the Novgorod mayors gave this, but Yaroslav did not give this to his father in Kyiv.” Vladimir the Saint began to prepare a punitive campaign against his rebellious son, but suddenly died in 1015. From then on, probably, the tribute collected from the subject territories began to remain in Novgorod and went to support the prince and his administration.
Novgorod is not mentioned in the Yaroslav Row, since traditionally the Kiev prince himself sent posadniks to Novgorod. In the 11th century the children of Izyaslav, Svyatoslav and Vsevolod Yaroslavich alternately visited this princely table. But none of them could take root in Northwestern Rus'. Longest at the turn of the 11th-12th centuries. Representatives of the princely house of Vsevolod Yaroslavich were in Novgorod. From 1097 to 1117, the Novgorod table was occupied by MSTISLAV THE GREAT, the eldest son of Vladimir Vsevolodich Monomakh. Novgorodians knew him from childhood. When in 1102 the Grand Duke of Kiev Svyatopolk Izyaslavich wanted to replace him with his son, they answered him: “We don’t want either Svyatopolk or his son; Vsevolod gave this to us, and we fed the prince for ourselves,” and further: “If your son has two heads, then send him to us!"
After twenty years of his stay in the north-west, Mstislav Vladimirovich in 1117. went to Southern Rus', closer to his father, who was in Kyiv. In Novgorod he left his eldest son VSEVOLOD MSTISLAVICH, who also occupied this table for almost 20 years (1117-1136). But the princely dynasty in the Novgorod land never developed. This was greatly facilitated by the events of the late 11th - first half of the 12th centuries. Since the 80s 11th century The position of Novgorod mayor was separated from the princely power and began to exist parallel to it. At first, posadniks were representatives of the Kyiv boyar aristocracy, appointed by the Kyiv Grand Duke. And then (from the second quarter of the 12th century) Novgorod boyars began to be elected to this position at the veche. Thus, this institution of executive power turned into an elected body of local administration.
In the 30s 12th century In Novgorod, events took place that in scientific literature are usually called an “uprising” or “coup.” After the death of his father in 1132, Vsevolod Mstislavich, at the request of his uncle, the Grand Duke of Kyiv Yaropolk Vladimirovich, went to Southern Rus' to the Pereslavl table. Thus, he violated the oath given shortly before, promising to reign in Novgorod until his death: “and I kissed the cross to the Novgorodians, that I want to die with you.” Pereslavl South was then considered as the last step in the ascent to the Grand Duke's throne. Therefore, Mstislav Vladimirovich’s younger brothers Yuri (Dolgoruky) and Andrei became worried, thinking that the childless Prince Yaropolk Vladimirovich intended his eldest nephew Vsevolod Mstislavich to take his place. Vsevolod had not even spent a day sitting on the Pereslavl table before his father’s brothers, Yuri and Andrey, drove him out of there by lunchtime. The unlucky prince could only return to the abandoned Novgorod table.
After the prince left, a meeting was hastily convened in Novgorod, to which representatives from the suburbs of Pskov and Ladoga arrived. The Novgorodians decided to expel the prince from the city for violating the oath, but after thinking a little they nevertheless returned him to the Novgorod table. After this conflict, Vsevolod Mstislavich spent about four years in Novgorod. And in 1136 the situation repeated itself. Again, the Novgorodians, Pskovians and Ladoga residents gathered at a meeting in Novgorod and decided to expel the prince from the city. He was reminded of his past guilt, and also added new claims: he did not care about the population subject to tribute; was not distinguished by courage and bravery during two military campaigns against Suzdal (1134-1135), which he himself organized.
The prince and his family were arrested and placed in custody at the lord's court, where he was carefully guarded for about two months by thirty people every day. At the same time, the Novgorodians sent an embassy to Chernigov and invited Svyatoslav Olgovich. Eight decades later, a representative of the Chernigov princely house again appeared on the Novgorod table. Thus, in Novgorod the principle of “liberty in the princes” won, which the Novgorodians later actively used, expelling and inviting at their own discretion applicants to the princely table. Events of the first half of the 12th century. became landmarks in the history of the Novgorod land. An end was put to the limitless dictatorship of the Kyiv Grand Duke. Conditions arose for the further development of a unique political structure of this land, which in scientific literature received the name “Novgorod Republic”.
The supreme body of power in Novgorod became the veche, at which representatives of the executive branch were elected, the candidacy of the prince was considered, and the most important issues of domestic and foreign policy were decided. Until now, there is no consensus among researchers about the composition of its participants: whether they were all free male residents of the city or only estate owners. The fact is that archaeological excavations, which have been carried out for several years in this medieval city, have confirmed the clan nature of urban boyar land ownership. Several large boyar families over the course of a number of centuries owned a small complex of courtyards, which were passed down from generation to generation. In such courtyards lived the heads of families with their relatives, servants and artisans who served them. The famous archaeologist and researcher of medieval Novgorod V.L. Yanin believes that the veche was nominally a meeting of the owners of these urban boyar estates (no more than 500 people), who decided the fate of the city and the entire land. Other researchers (Yu.G. Alekseev, I.Ya. Froyanov) believe that Novgorod was a territorial community with the features of pre-feudal democracy. They attribute the veche device to these features. At that time, all free members of this community were participants in veche meetings, regardless of their social affiliation.
Along with the citywide veche, there were veche meetings of the suburbs (Pskov and Ladoga), ends and streets. The Volkhov River divided Novgorod into two halves: the Torgovaya, so named because of the location of citywide trading and foreign trading yards, and the Sophia, where the St. Sophia Cathedral and the courtyard of the Novgorod ruler were located. On the Trade Side there were Slavensky and Plotnitsky ends, on Sofiyskaya there were Nerevsky, Zagorodsky and Lyudin (Goncharsky) ends. The ends consisted of streets. A similar territorial structure developed gradually throughout the 12th-13th centuries. The leading role in all these self-government bodies was played by local boyars.
The main official in the Novgorod administration was the mayor. He stood at the head of the Novgorod government, presided over the assembly, and was in charge of the citywide court and administration. In fact, representatives of several boyar families were elected mayors, between whom there was a constant struggle. The second important person in the city administration was the Tysyatsky. He headed the city militia, was in charge of tax collection and the commercial court. Initially, this position was subordinate to the prince, and from the end of the 12th century. the thousand began to be elected at a citywide meeting. Since 1156 The position of Novgorod bishop (since 1165 archbishop) also belongs to the elective institutions. The Novgorod ruler managed the treasury, controlled foreign policy relations and the disposal of the land fund, and was the keeper of the standards of measures and weights.
The prince, elected at the assembly and invited to the city, led the Novgorod army. His squad maintained public order in the city. He performed representative functions in other principalities and was a symbol of the unity of the Novgorod lands. But the position of the Novgorod prince was unstable, because. his fate very often depended on the decision of the veche meeting. At such meetings, violent passions boiled over the candidacy of the prince, and there was a fierce struggle between the boyar clans to fill the post of mayor, which they tried to oppose to the princely power. Quite often the veche ended in bloodshed. From 1095 to 1304 On the Novgorod table, the princes changed at least 58 times. But even outside Novgorod, representatives of several princely families argued among themselves over the Novgorod table. They sought to find support and support both in the person of ordinary townspeople and in the extensive boyar aristocracy.
Moreover, the Novgorod table was played only between the descendants of Svyatoslav and Vsevolod Yaroslavich. The Chernigov princes (Olgovichs) had the least luck in this game. In the second half of the 12th century. The struggle for the Novgorod table began to be waged by representatives of the senior branch of the Monomakhovichs - the Mstislavichs (children and grandchildren of Mstislav the Great) and the younger - the Yuryeviches (the offspring of Yuri Dolgoruky). There was no unity in the Mstislavich camp: both the descendants of Izyaslav Mstislavich (Volyn princes) and Rostislav Mstislavich (Smolensk princes) laid claim to the Novgorod table. Their successes in achieving the Grand Duke’s table in Kyiv played a significant role in this struggle, because the connection between these two all-Russian tables formally continued to exist. The rulers of the Vladimir-Suzdal and Smolensk principalities sought, through the princes of their house, to keep the Novgorod and Kiev tables, as well as the distant Galician, in line with their policies. The princes of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality won this political relay race, because since the 80s 12th century On the princely table in Novgorod, mostly henchmen of Vsevolod the Big Nest or his descendants sat.
Relations with the neighboring Vladimir-Suzdal principality of Novgorod were quite complicated. The new principality, which grew up at the beginning of the 12th century on the southeastern outskirts of the Novgorod land, became a real rival in the Volga trade, in the development of the vast expanses of the north, in the subjugation of the non-Slavic population living there. In the 30s 12th century Novgorodians made two military campaigns against Suzdal to bring it under their control. The second of them, which happened in the winter of 1135, ended in a crushing defeat of the Novgorodians at Zhdanova Gora. It was this unsuccessful campaign that largely decided the fate of Vsevolod Mstislavich in 1136. After this, the Suzdal and Rostov residents began to make numerous forays into Novgorod territory, trying to expand the borders of their land.
From then on, the rulers of North-Eastern Rus', relying on one or another boyar group in Novgorod, joined the relay race for the local princely table. And the Novgorodians themselves, in the struggle for the principle of “liberty in princes,” quite often sought support from the same Yuryevichs. Many of the representatives of this princely house visited the Novgorod table: Rostislav and Mstislav Yuryevich, Mstislav Rostislavich Bezokiy and his son Svyatoslav, Yuri Andreevich. The latter's father, Andrei Bogolyubsky, organized in 1169. a large-scale campaign against Novgorod by the forces of the Vladimir-Suzdal army and allied detachments from the Smolensk land. At the walls of the city, the Novgorodians, led by Prince Roman Mstislavich (1168-1170), the same one who later ruled so brilliantly in the Galicia-Volyn principality, crushed the enemy troops. That’s when the Vladimir prince undertook a trade blockade, as a result of which the Novgorodians the next year denied Roman Mstislavich the reign and sent an embassy to Andrei Yuryevich with peace proposals.
Trying to resist the growing influence of the Vladimir-Suzdal land, the Novgorodians supported Mstislav and Yaropolk Rostislavich in their struggle for the princely table with Vsevolod the Big Nest. When the latter settled in Vladimir Zalessky, he did everything possible to keep the Novgorod table under his control. Only once did his efforts prove fruitless, when Mstislav Mstislavich Udaloy (1208-1217) arrived in Novgorod at the invitation of the veche meeting. His position in this city was incomparably great. His father reigned in Novgorod, died and was buried in the St. Sophia Cathedral. Mstislav Udaloy had a strong squad, was distinguished by military valor and courage, which is why he earned such a nickname. With a firm and skillful hand he ruled Novgorod and made 5 armed campaigns against Chud. But he was stubbornly drawn to Southern Rus'. On one of these departures in 1216. The Novgorod opposition invited son-in-law Mstislav Mstislavich, the native son of Vsevolod the Big Nest, to the princely table. Yaroslav Vsevolodich arrived in Novgorod, and then left it and occupied Torzhok, from where he began to make hostile attacks against Novgorod, blocking the flow of grain. It was these actions of Yaroslav Vsevolodich that brought the Novgorodians, together with Mstislav the Udal, to the camp of the allies of Konstantin Vsevolodich, on whose side they fought in the famous Battle of Lipitsa. Soon after this, Mstislav Mstislavich, despite the entreaties of the Novgorodians, left the table and went to reign in Galich. Novgorod was left alone with its strong neighbor - the Vladimir-Suzdal Principality. Representatives of this princely house now permanently occupied the Novgorod table. The Novgorodians had constant conflicts with many of them (in particular with Yaroslav Vsevolodich). In these disputes and conflicts, Novgorod statehood grew and became stronger. Another dangerous and hitherto unknown enemy loomed on the threshold - the Mongol-Tatars.
Formation of a system of lands - independent states. The most important lands ruled by branches of the princely family of Rurikovich: Chernigov, Smolensk, Galician, Volyn, Suzdal. Lands that had a special status: Kiev and Novgorod. Evolution social order and rights. Foreign policy of Russian lands in the Eurasian context.
Formation of regional cultural centers: chronicles and literary monuments: the Kiev-Pechersk Patericon, the prayer of Daniil Zatochnik, “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign.” White-stone churches of North-Eastern Rus': the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir, the Church of the Intercession on the Nerl, St. George's Cathedral in Yuryev-Polsky.
Russian lands in the middle of the XIII - XIV centuries.
The emergence of the Mongol Empire. Conquests of Genghis Khan and his descendants. Batu's campaigns in Eastern Europe. The emergence of the Golden Horde. The fate of Russian lands after the Mongol invasion. The system of dependence of Russian lands on the Horde khans (the so-called “Horde yoke”).
Southern and Western Russian lands. The emergence of the Lithuanian state and the inclusion of part of the Russian lands into its composition. Northwestern lands: Novgorod and Pskov. Political system of Novgorod and Pskov. The role of the veche and the prince. Novgorod in the system of Baltic connections.
Orders of the Crusaders and the fight against their expansion on the western borders of Rus'. Alexander Nevsky: his relationship with the Horde. Principalities of North-Eastern Rus'. The struggle for the great reign of Vladimir. Confrontation between Tver and Moscow. Strengthening the Moscow Principality. Dmitry Donskoy. Battle of Kulikovo. Consolidating the primacy of the Moscow princes.
Transfer of the metropolitan see to Moscow. Role Orthodox Church during the Horde period of Russian history. Sergius of Radonezh. The flourishing of early Moscow art. Stone cathedrals of the Kremlin.
Peoples and states steppe zone Eastern Europe and Siberia in the XIII-XV centuries.
Golden Horde: political system, population, economy, culture. Cities and nomadic steppes. Acceptance of Islam. Weakening of the state in the second half of the 14th century, the invasion of Timur.
Collapse of the Golden Horde, formation of the Tatar khanates. Kazan Khanate. Khanate of Siberia. Astrakhan Khanate. Nogai horde. Crimean Khanate. Kasimov Khanate. Peoples of the North Caucasus. Italian trading posts of the Black Sea region (Kaffa, Tana, Soldaya, etc.) and their role in the system of trade and political relations of Rus' with the West and East
Cultural space
Changes in ideas about the picture of the world in Eurasia in connection with the completion of the Mongol conquests. Cultural interaction of civilizations. Intercultural connections and communications (interaction and mutual influence of Russian culture and the cultures of the peoples of Eurasia). Chronicle. Monuments of the Kulikovo cycle. Lives. Epiphanius the Wise. Architecture. Art. Theophanes the Greek. Andrey Rublev.
Formation of a unified Russian state in the 15th century
The struggle for Russian lands between the Lithuanian and Moscow states. The unification of Russian lands around Moscow. Internecine war in the Moscow principality of the second quarter of the 15th century. Vasily the Dark. Novgorod and Pskov in the 15th century: political system, relations with Moscow, the Livonian Order, the Hansa, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The fall of Byzantium and the growth of the church-political role of Moscow in the Orthodox world. The theory “Moscow is the third Rome”. Ivan III. Annexation of Novgorod and Tver. Eliminating dependence on the Horde. Expansion of international relations of the Moscow state. Adoption of the All-Russian Law Code. Formation of the management apparatus of a unified state. Changes in the structure of the Grand Duke's court: new state symbols; royal title and regalia; palace and church construction. Moscow Kremlin.
Cultural space
Changes in perception of the world. Sacralization of grand-ducal power. Union of Florence. Establishment of autocephaly of the Russian Church. Intra-church struggle (Josephites and non-possessors, heresies). Development of the culture of a unified Russian state. Chronicles: all-Russian and regional. Hagiographic literature. “Walking across Three Seas” by Afanasy Nikitin. Architecture. Art. Daily life of townspeople and rural residents in the Old Russian and Early Moscow periods.
Concepts and terms: Appropriating and producing economy. Slavs. Balts. Finno-Ugrians. Rus. Slash-and-burn farming system. City. Village. Tribute, polyudye, hryvnia. Prince, veche, mayor. Squad. Merchants. Patrimony. Estate. Peasants. People, stinkers, purchases, slaves. Traditional beliefs, Christianity, Orthodoxy, Islam, Judaism. Monastery. Metropolitan. Autocephaly (church). Tithe.
Graffiti. Basilica. Cross-domed church. Plintha. Fresco. Mosaic. Chronicle. Lives. Birch bark letters. Epics.
Horde. Kurultai, baskak, label. Foreman. Military monastic orders. Crusaders. Centralization. Feeding. Tsar. Coat of arms.
Personalities:
State and military figures: Alexander Nevsky, Andrei Bogolyubsky, Askold and Dir, Batu (Batu), Vasily I, Vasily the Dark, Vitovt, Vladimir Monomakh, Vladimir the Holy, Vsevolod the Big Nest, Gedimin, Daniil Galitsky, Daniil Moskovsky, Dmitry Donskoy, Ivan Kalita, Ivan III, Igor, Igor Svyatoslavich, Mamai, Mikhail Yaroslavich Tverskoy, Oleg, Olga, Olgerd, Rurik, Svyatopolk the Accursed, Svyatoslav Igorevich, Sofia (Zoya) Paleolog, Sofya Vitovtovna, Timur, Tokhtamysh, Uzbek, Genghis Khan, Yuri Danilovich, Yuri Dolgoruky, Jagiello, Yaroslav the Wise.
Public and religious figures, cultural, scientific and educational figures: Metropolitan Alexy, Boris and Gleb, Daniel Sharpener, Dionysius, Epiphanius the Wise, Metropolitan Hilarion, Metropolitan Jonah, Cyril and Methodius, Nestor, Afanasy Nikitin, Pachomius the Serb, Metropolitan Peter, Andrei Rublev, Sergius of Radonezh, Stephen of Perm, Theophanes the Greek, Aristotle Fioravanti.
Sources: Treaties between Rus' and Byzantium. Russian truth. The Tale of Bygone Years. Teachings of Vladimir Monomakh. Novgorod first chronicle. A word about Igor's regiment. Galicia-Volyn Chronicle. Life of Alexander Nevsky. Life of Mikhail Yaroslavich Tverskoy. Zadonshchina. Chronicle stories about the Battle of Kulikovo. Life of Sergius of Radonezh. Novgorod Psalter. Birch bark letters. Princely spiritual and contractual charters. Pskov judicial charter. Code of Law 1497
Events/dates:
860 – Russian campaign against Constantinople
862 – “calling” of Rurik
882 – capture of Kyiv by Oleg
907 – Oleg’s campaign against Constantinople
911 – agreement between Rus' and Byzantium
941, 944 – Igor’s campaigns against Constantinople, treaties between Rus' and Byzantium
964-972 – campaigns of Svyatoslav
978/980-1015 – reign of Vladimir Svyatoslavich in Kyiv
988 – baptism of Rus'
1016-1018 and 1019-1054 – reign of Yaroslav the Wise
XI century – Russian Truth (Short edition)
1097 – Lyubech Congress
1113-1125 – reign of Vladimir Monomakh in Kyiv
1125-1132 – reign of Mstislav the Great in Kyiv
Beginning XII V. – “The Tale of Bygone Years”
XII century – Russian Truth (Long edition)
1147 – the first mention of Moscow in chronicles
1185 – Igor Svyatoslavich’s campaign against the Polovtsians
1223 – battle on the river. Kalke
1237-1241 – conquest of Rus' by Batu Khan
1242-1243 – formation of the Ulus Jochi (Golden Horde)
1325-1340 – reign of Ivan Kalita.
1327 – anti-Horde uprising in Tver
1359-1389 – reign of Dmitry Donskoy
1382 – destruction of Moscow by Tokhtamysh
1389 – 1425 – reign of Vasily I
History of Russia [Tutorial] Team of authors
1.3. Russian lands in the 12th – first half of the 13th centuries
Causes of feudal fragmentation
From the second third of the 12th century. The ancient Russian state entered a new stage of its development - during the period of feudal fragmentation.
The prerequisites for the disintegration of Rus' into separate lands and principalities matured gradually. In the XI–XII centuries. In the Old Russian state, the process of formation of princely and then boyar land ownership took place. The income that the prince's associates received from their estates became more important to them than the tribute collected. The warriors turned into land owners and sought to be closer to their possessions. Previously, any warrior tried to move after his prince to a more profitable “table”. Now the boyars were burdened by serving the Grand Duke. The appanage princes cared not so much about protecting Rus' from external danger, but about ensuring their independence and strengthening their own principalities.
Feudal estates were closed subsistence farms in which almost all necessary products were produced. Because of this, internal trade was poorly developed, economic ties between the regions were fragile, which led to economic isolation of individual lands and principalities.
The development of productive forces, improvement of tools, and strengthening of the economic power of local princes and feudal lords determined the growth of their political influence, which was expressed primarily in attempts to independently manage the lands. The growth and strengthening of cities as political, economic and cultural centers also contributed to the fragmentation of Rus'. It was the cities that local boyars and princes relied on in their struggle against the central government in Kyiv. The increasing role of the boyars and local princes led to the revival of city veche meetings. The veche, as a unique form of feudal democracy, was practically in the hands of the boyars, who used it as an instrument of pressure not only on the Grand Duke, but also on local princes.
The inevitable separation of individual parts of the Old Russian state under these conditions deprived the Grand Duke of Kyiv of a significant part of the income coming from the lands that were part of the state. At a time when the grand ducal power needed material resources to combat the separatist tendencies of individual lands, it was deprived of them. Nominally, the seniority of the Grand Duke of Kyiv was still preserved, but practically the appanage princes became independent of him. The princely congress in the city of Lyubech in 1097 decided: “let everyone maintain his fatherland,” i.e., thereby legally securing the independence of individual principalities.
The importance of Kyiv as a political center of Russian lands was also declining due to a number of other reasons. The intensified attacks of the nomadic Polovtsians devastated primarily Southern Rus', as a result of which the population left the Middle Dnieper region, which was open to invasion, and moved to the forested northern regions. In the 12th century. The directions of European trade routes also shifted. The beginning of the crusades of Western European feudal lords opened safer sea routes to the countries of the Middle East. In this regard, the importance of the route “from the Varangians to the Greeks,” which contributed to the economic rise of Rus' in the previous era, fell.
The period of feudal fragmentation was a time of further economic, political and cultural rise of individual lands and principalities. New cities were built, which became the centers of feudal lands. According to written sources, at the beginning of the 11th century. There were over 60 cities in Rus'; by the 12th century. there were over 130 of them, and during the period of fragmentation - 224. There was a struggle between the feudal lords for the ownership of lands and cities, peasants and artisans. Brutal internecine wars did not stop. Politically, Rus' became less stable and vulnerable to external aggression.
Initially, Rus' broke up into 14 principalities, which in turn were split into smaller fiefs. A republican form of government was established in Novgorod and Pskov. At the same time, as already mentioned, the seniority of the Grand Duke was outwardly preserved, princely congresses were convened, where issues of all-Russian politics were discussed. The princes were bound together by feudal vassal relations. Rus' during the period of fragmentation retained a single faith, language, and cultural traditions. The most significant state entities in the period under consideration historical period were the Rostov-Suzdal, Galicia-Volyn, Murom-Ryazan, Chernigovo-Seversk, Kiev, Turov-Pinsk principalities, the Novgorod and Pskov feudal republics.
Vladimir-Suzdal Rus'
Among ancient Russian principalities The Vladimir-Suzdal land occupied special place. Here, in the northeast of the East European Plain, the center of the future national unification of all Rus' was formed. Finno-Ugric tribes - Merya, Muroma, etc. - have long lived in the area between the Oka and Volga rivers, but since the 11th century. these lands are inhabited by the Slavic tribes of the Krivichi and Vyatichi. The area was dominated by extensive forests with an extensive system of waterways. Along with fishing, hunting, beekeeping, and beaver farming, agriculture also developed, primarily in the so-called fields among forests where there were fertile soils. The cities of Rostov, Suzdal and others were founded in these areas. Waterways connected the Vladimir-Suzdal land with the Lower and Middle Volga region, the Caucasus and Central Asia.
During the period of feudal fragmentation, population migration to the northeast of the Slavic territory from the Novgorod lands and the Middle Dnieper region intensified. The influx of population contributed to economic growth and the emergence of new cities - Vladimir-on-Klyazma, Galich, Dmitrov, Kostroma, Pereyaslavl-Zalessky. The first chronicle mention of Moscow dates back to 1147.
In the 12th century, relying on their increased power, local princes began the struggle to take control of Kiev. Son of Vladimir Monomakh Yuri, nicknamed Dolgoruky(1125–1157), fought for the Kiev table all his life. He took the city three times, but only at the end of his life, in 1155, did he manage to “sit down” in Kyiv. His son Andrey Bogolyubsky(1157–1174) although he captured Kyiv, he did not reign there; he transferred the throne to his younger brother Gleb, and he himself returned to Vladimir.
Andrei Bogolyubsky, who sought to strengthen princely power, waged a long struggle with the boyar nobility. He moved the capital of the principality from Rostov, the citadel of the boyars, to the young city of Vladimir-on-Klyazma, around which local land ownership was mainly concentrated. Relying on the support of younger warriors and townspeople, Andrei Bogolyubsky expelled his father from the principality. The local boyars organized a conspiracy against him, as a result of which Andrei Bogolyubsky was killed in 1174. The death of the prince was the cause of two years of unrest and uprisings of Vladimir townspeople against the boyars and their henchmen.
Andrei Bogolyubsky’s policy was continued by his brother Vsevolod Yurievich Big Nest(1176–1212). He dealt with the participants in the conspiracy and their allies - the Ryazan prince Gleb and the Ryazan nobility, subjugated the Murom-Ryazan principality, and expanded his possessions in the east. Under him, the Vladimir-Suzdal land reached its greatest prosperity. Vsevolod had a decisive influence on the course of events in Novgorod; Kyiv also had to recognize the power of the Vladimir prince over itself. The author of “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” speaks about the strength and power of Vsevolod: “He can sprinkle the Volga with oars, and scoop up the Don with helmets.”
During the reign of Andrei Bogolyubsky and Vsevolod the Big Nest, construction was actively carried out in cities, especially in Vladimir. The Vladimir Assumption and Dmitrov Cathedrals, the castle in Bogolyubovo, the Church of the Intercession on the Nerl, cathedrals in Yuryev-Polsky and Suzdal were erected. Chronicle writing developed.
But the unification process was not sustainable. After the death of Vsevolod the Big Nest, the fragmentation of the Vladimir-Suzdal land into appanages began. In the 13th century Pereyaslavl, Rostov, Suzdal, Yaroslavl, Tver, and Moscow principalities appeared.
Galicia-Volyn Principality
It extended from the northeastern slopes of the Carpathians to the Danube Black Sea region in the south and to the lands of the Lithuanian Yatvingian tribe and Polotsk in the north. In the west, the principality bordered on Hungary and Poland, in the east – on the land of Kyiv.
It was an area of ancient agricultural culture with favorable climatic conditions, fertile soil, rich in minerals. Salt has long been mined here, without which it was impossible to preserve food until the next harvest. The Galician land was located at the intersection of important trade routes: from the Baltic Sea to the Black Sea (via the Vistula and Western Bug) and from Rus' to the countries of the Southeast and Central Europe. In the XII–XIII centuries. after the decline of Kyiv, the Galician land was the most developed economically and culturally among other southern Russian lands.
The first famous Galician princes were the great-grandsons of Yaroslav the Wise - the Rostislavichs: Volodar and Vasilko. Until the middle of the 12th century. The Galician land was divided into several small principalities. In 1141 they were united by the Prince of Przemysl, Volodar's son Vladimir, into a single principality with its capital in the city of Galich. The Galician land reached significant prosperity under his son Yaroslav Osmomysl(1152–1187); he owned eight foreign languages, for which he received his nickname.
Boyar land ownership in the Galician principality was ahead of the princely in its development and significantly surpassed it. Relying on economic power, the “great boyars” actively intervened not only in governance, but also in the order of succession to power. They invited and drove away princes, and once even hanged rulers they disliked. Therefore, after the death of Osmomysl, the Principality of Galicia became the arena of intense struggle between the princes and the local boyars.
Unlike the Galician land, where boyar land ownership was widely developed, a princely domain was formed early in Volyn, which ensured a stronger position of princely power. The Volyn principality separated from Kyiv in the middle of the 12th century. as a family nest for the descendants of Vladimir Monomakh. Volyn reached its greatest prosperity during Roman Mstislavich, who in 1199 managed to unite his lands with the Principality of Galicia. This prince was well known in the Russian lands and in Western Europe, and pursued an active policy of conquest. In 1203, he captured Kyiv and assumed the title of Grand Duke, uniting Southern and Southwestern Rus' for a short time.
After the death of Roman Mstislavich in Poland in 1205, a thirty-year outbreak broke out in the Galician land. feudal war. The Galician boyars relied on the help of Hungarian and Polish feudal lords, who as a result divided the Principality of Galicia and part of Volyn among themselves. In 1221, Prince Mstislav Mstislavich Udaloy from Toropets managed to liberate this land from Hungarian rule. In 1238, after a long and stubborn struggle with the Galician feudal lords and foreign invaders, the son of Roman Mstislavich finally established himself in the Galician principality Daniel(1238–1264).
The reign of Daniil Romanovich constituted an entire era in the history of the Galician land. Under him, crafts, construction, trade reached their highest peak, and cultural ties with Western Europe. In 1240, Daniel took possession of Kiev, again for a short time uniting the Kyiv land and Southwestern Rus'. He organized resistance to the Mongol-Tatars and fought with Lithuania.
After the death of Daniel, the Galician land became the arena of internecine struggle and external invasions - the Mongol-Tatars, Poland and Lithuania.
"Mr. Veliky Novgorod"
The core of the Novgorod land was the territory between Lake Ilmen and Lake Peipus along the Volkhov, Lovat, and Velikaya rivers. In addition to the Ilmen Slovenes, Krivichi, non-Slavic tribes Vod and Karelians lived here. Novgorod was located on the banks of the Volkhov in close proximity to Lake Ilmen, i.e. at the beginning of the water trade route “from the Varangians to the Greeks,” which contributed to the rapid rise of the city. In the 11th century Novgorodians began active colonization of Karelia, the Podvina region, the Onega region, and northern Pomerania. The exceptionally favorable geographical position of Novgorod determined the character economic activity its population. Novgorod was the largest trading center and had long-standing and stable ties with Byzantium, Scandinavia, Denmark, and the Hansa. Trade in Novgorod was based on developed crafts and various trades. Agriculture due to unfavorable natural conditions was unproductive, but numerous trades flourished - hunting, fishing, beekeeping, salt making, etc., bringing considerable income to large landowners. The main items of Novgorod export were furs, wax, flax, hemp, lard, and handicrafts. Western European merchants brought weapons, metal, and cloth. Novgorod merchants united into special trade unions - “hundreds”. The greatest weight among them was held by the “Ivan Sto” - an association of “wax merchants”, that is, those who traded in wax.
In the Novgorod land, boyar and then church land ownership arose early and became dominant. Economic power largely explained the decisive role of the boyars in the political life of Novgorod.
In the 12th century. In Novgorod, a special political system was formed, different from the princely monarchy - the feudal boyar republic. In 1136, rebel townspeople expelled Prince Vsevolod Mstislavich, grandson of Vladimir Monomakh, for “neglect” of city interests. The boyars, using the popular movement for their own purposes, achieved the political isolation of Novgorod from Kyiv. A republican system was established in Novgorod.
Gradually, a coherent system of governing bodies developed in the Novgorod Republic. The supreme body was considered the veche - a meeting of townspeople, owners of city yards, lands and estates. The veche considered the most important issues of domestic and foreign policy, invited the prince and concluded a “row” with him - an agreement on his rights and obligations, elected a mayor, who was in charge of administration and court, a thousand, who led the militia and collected taxes. In order to make the Novgorod clergy their ally, the boyars in 1156 achieved the election of an archbishop, who not only headed the church in Novgorod, but was also in charge of the republic’s treasury and its external relations. Elected were also the elders of all five ends - the districts into which the city was divided, as well as the elders of the streets.
The role of the prince in the political life of Novgorod was very limited. By signing the agreement, the prince swore an oath not to own lands on the territory of the republic and not to interfere in the affairs of the city. He was actually a hired military leader of the Novgorod squad and militia. If the prince did not suit the Novgorodians, he was driven out and another was invited.
It is unlikely that the political system of the Novgorod Republic was a unique form of feudal “democracy”. In fact, power was in the hands of the boyars and the elite of the merchant class. The positions of mayor, thousand and Konchan elders were occupied by representatives of 30–40 boyar families, the so-called 300 “golden belts”. As the Novgorod Republic developed, oligarchic principles in the political system of this public education increasingly intensified.
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From the book World History: in 6 volumes. Volume 2: Medieval civilizations of the West and East author Team of authorsKOREA IN THE XIII - FIRST HALF OF THE XV centuries Vanin Yu.V. Feudal Korea in the XIII–XIV centuries. M., 1962. Vasiliev L. S. History of the East: in 2 volumes. M., 1998. Kurbanov S. O. History of Korea from antiquity to beginning of the XXI century. St. Petersburg, 2009. Lee G.B. History of Korea: a new interpretation / Transl. from Korean edited by S.O. Kurbanova. M.,
From the book History of England in the Middle Ages author Shtokmar Valentina VladimirovnaEconomic development of England in the XIII - first half of the XIV centuries. Cities Already in the 10th century. in England there are a number of large cities, craft and shopping centers(such as London, York, Boston, Ipswich, Lynn, port cities on the south coast) and many small towns and villages, economy
From the book HISTORY OF RUSSIA from ancient times to 1618. Textbook for universities. In two books. Book one. author Kuzmin Apollon Grigorievich§4. RUSSIAN PRINCIPALITIES IN THE SECOND HALF OF THE 13TH CENTURY. After the death of Alexander Nevsky, four of his sons remained: Vasily, Dmitry, Andrei, Daniil. Andrei began to lay claim to the great reign, and Yaroslav Yaroslavich Tverskoy (1230-1271), Alexander’s brother, challenged his claims
From the book Rus'. Other story author Goldenkov Mikhail AnatolievichLithuania collects Russian lands. XIII-XV centuries The Russian version of the history of Rus' is more than curious in relation to Lithuania, as it sometimes contradicts even such a science as genetics. “How did it happen that Prince Olgerd’s sons from his Vitebsk wife - Andrei and Dmitry - are called
From the book History of Romania author Bolovan IoanCrusader movement and Catholic missions in the first half of the 13th century. In the 13th century, after the peak of the crusades for the liberation of the Holy Land had passed, the crusaders turned their attention to the vast territories of the eastern part of the European continent, dominated by Byzantium,
From the book Rus': from Slavic settlement to the Muscovite kingdom author Gorsky Anton AnatolievichPart IV RUSSIAN LANDS FROM THE MIDDLE OF THE 13th - TO THE END OF THE 14TH CENTURY. Then, across the Russian land, the Rataevs began to rant, and often lie and lie, sharing corpses with themselves... Longing spread across the Russian land, sadness flowed thickly through the Russian land. And the princes commit sedition on themselves... From “The Tale of the Regiment”
From the book History [Crib] author Fortunatov Vladimir ValentinovichChapter 4. Russian lands in the XIII–XV centuries. and the European Middle Ages 8. The Mongol state and its influence on world development At the beginning of the 13th century. In Central Asia, the Mongolian nomadic tribes were united into a single powerful power. Mongol early feudal state
From the book History of Ukraine. Popular science essays author Team of authorsGalicia-Volyn lands in the second half of the 13th century After the death of Daniil Romanovich (1264), his brother Vasilko Romanovich was formally considered the Grand Duke, but in fact retained only the Vladimir and Berestey principalities, which later passed to his son
From the book History of the Ukrainian SSR in ten volumes. Volume four author Team of authorsChapter VII WESTERN UKRAINIAN LANDS UNDER THE YUMP OF THE AUSTRIAN MONARCHY IN THE FIRST HALF OF THE 19TH CENTURY. Western Ukrainian lands in the first half of the 19th century. remained in the possession of Austria. Austrian absolutism in the interests of the ruling classes consolidated their political and administrative
From the book History of Russia IX–XVIII centuries. author Moryakov Vladimir IvanovichCHAPTER IV Russian lands in XII– XIII centuries
From the book History of the Tver Region author Vorobiev Vyacheslav Mikhailovich§§ 18-19. TVER LANDS IN THE FIRST HALF OF THE 16TH CENTURY Although the Tver lands became part of the Moscow state, large local feudal lords for a long time retained the remnants of the former power, “punishing and favoring” in their possessions. A clear administrative division had not yet developed in the country.