Political ideologies of our time. The main idea of liberal democratic ideology is

rights that distinguishes it from other forms
social regulation
1/ social value 2/ provided
possibility of application
state coercion
3/ supported by the power of public
opinions 4/ connection with morality
A 2. Among those listed
offenses a crime is
1/ food trade in
unspecified place 2/ non-payment of debt
3/ showing up at work drunk 4/
malicious evasion of alimony payments
A 3. Are the following judgments true?
A. Source of power and carrier
sovereignty in the Russian Federation is
multinational people - says
constitutional principle of separation
authorities.
B. The Constitution of the Russian Federation of 1993 does not include
The President of the Russian Federation to none of the three branches
authorities.

incorrect
A 4. The content of the policy is determined
1/ relations between individuals by
about power
2/ relations between small groups
people about power
3/ relations between non-state
organizations regarding the conclusion
deals
4/ relationships between large groups
people about power
A 5. In the state N. the main body,
implementing legislative
activity is National
an assembly formed by election.
The National Assembly creates and
passes laws that it approves
king. The government bears
responsibility to the National
meeting. What is the form of government in
State N?
1/ estate-representative monarchy 2/
absolute monarchy
3/ parliamentary monarchy 4/
parliamentary republic
A 6. Are the following judgments true about
separation of powers?
A. Separation of powers promotes
preventing the concentration of power in the hands
one man.
B. Separation of powers promotes
clear division of functions between
branches of government.
1/ only A is correct 2/ only B is correct 3/
both judgments are correct 4/ both judgments
incorrect
A7. Are the following statements true?
state?
A. having one’s own territory is not
is mandatory feature For
states.
B. establishing and collecting taxes on
territory of the state is a monopoly
law of the state.
1/ only A is correct 2/ only B is correct 3/
both judgments are correct 4/ both judgments
incorrect
A 8. Specify the form of direct
citizen participation in governance
state, enshrined in the Constitution
RF.
1/ rallies 2/ petitions 3/ referendum 4/
people's initiative
A 9. Totalitarian state
characterized
1/ availability of economic
independence of citizens based
on private property
2/ ideological pluralism
3/ by independent means
mass media
4/ the absence of opposition parties and
movements
A 10. The rule of law distinguishes
1/ principle of separation of powers 2/
sovereignty
3/ independent foreign policy 4/
presence of an army
A 11. Which judgment is correct?
A. Laws in the Russian Federation are adopted by the Government
RF.
B. An ordinary citizen does not have
the right of legislative initiative.
1/ only A is correct 2/ only B is correct 3/
both judgments are correct 4/ both judgments
incorrect
Q 1. The list below shows the features
similarities between presidential and parliamentary
republics and four differences of the presidential
republic from parliamentary. Select and
write the answer in the table.
1/ power is replaceable, elected
certain period
2/ election of the head of state by the population
3/ government responsibility to
head of state
4/ legally established
accountability and responsibility of government
for the results of their activities.
Similarities Similarities Differences
B 2. Establish a correspondence between
features of political regimes and their
types.
Features of political regimes:
A) opposition is allowed, but is
under strict control B) legal
state
B) complete state control over everyone and
by everyone D) suppression of any opposition
D) equality of all before the law E)
propagation of a single ideology
Types of political regimes: 1)
democratic 2) authoritarian 3)
totalitarian
B 3. Establish a correspondence between
government bodies in the Russian Federation and
branches of government.
State authorities in the Russian Federation:
A) administration of the Primorsky Territory B)
Federal Assembly
C) Ministry of Culture D) city
thought
D) Government of the Russian Federation E) Department
education in Moscow
Branches of government: 1)
legislative 2)

Document. From the work of the Russian teacher, writer, journalist A.N. Ostrogorsky “Education and upbringing”. In infancy and throughout the preschool period

a person is raised almost exclusively by family, by family life. Here his inclinations receive their first food, here his sympathies, needs, interests are born, here his character is indicated... But the life of the family, its morals, inclinations, ideals, affections, activities, entertainment, its entire make-up, in turn, are a reflection of the life of everything society. Social successes and failures are brought into the family and here they are experienced... Here the father or mother rips out his heart, which there, outside the home, had to be restrained... The family cannot in any way protect itself from life, and the memories of people who survived enemy invasions and hunger strikes in their youth are always contain a story about the deep traces left in them by the impressions they experienced. But, in addition to such major events, everyday life inevitably affects the warehouse family life. In public life there is goodwill, mutual trust, joint work - and families live amicably, cordially, smoothing out the roughness of relationships with mutual compliance, loving children. Social life develops not in a human way, but in an animal way, on the principle of the struggle for existence, with the pursuit of personal interests... - and families begin to squabble, instead of love one hears defending one’s rights, instead of affection and help - quarrels and abuse. Social promiscuity always creeps into families, and a decline in interests is reflected in family life. Instead of literary, aesthetic, social conversations, one hears speeches about cards, housekeeping, servants' tricks, profit, costumes, etc. If there are families on which social mores and life have, one might say, an overwhelming influence, then there are those that protect “ Holy of Holies” from all kinds of stormy waves of the sea of life. In these families, children are a joy... while in others they are extra mouths to feed, a burden, an obstacle to getting settled, they are burdened by them, and the children live in a corner and neglect. Tasks. 1. What is the main idea of the document? 2. What social function of the family is the focus of attention of A.N. Ostorogorsky? How does his description of this function complement the text of the paragraph? 3. How does the author characterize the influence of society on the family? 4.What conclusion can be drawn from the text read to understand the relationship between family and society? 5.Why this text, written about 100 years ago, has not lost its relevance?

The ideological space is always pluralistic. A wide variety of ideological theories exist simultaneously in society. Functioning, they complement each other, creating a single ideological system. Even in totalitarian regimes, where there is a state ideology that absorbs almost completely the spiritual life of society, counter-ideologies function. Banned, persecuted counter-ideologies still challenge this state.

The main modern ideologies - liberalism, socialism, nationalism - arose in the conditions of the formation and development of Western European civilization. These ideologies reflected the real and diverse conflicts of the era of bourgeois development. They expressed to the maximum extent the understanding of the problems of modern society by the main social strata and classes, and it was in these ideologies that social groups acquired a clear identity.

Liberalism

In the political history of the West, the emergence of liberalism is associated with the development of capitalist society and coincides in time with the period of bourgeois revolutions of the 18th-19th centuries. The theorists of classical liberalism J. Locke (1632-1704), Adam Smith (1723-1790), C.-L. Montesquieu (1689-1755) expressed the interests of the third estate, fighting feudal reaction. Their ideas formed the basis of the concept liberal democracy.

The central place among the ideas of liberalism is occupied by the idea of individual freedom. Liberalism defended the intrinsic value of the human person and its right to independently pursue personal interests. Individualism in the understanding of the Enlightenment is the ability to assert oneself as a bearer of reason, the ability to transform reality in accordance with the demands of reason, to make it worthy of human nature.

The liberal doctrine of natural human rights to life, liberty, and property required society to provide the individual with maximum freedom for self-realization. The natural and only limitation of such freedom was the freedom of another individual.

The liberal theory of the “social contract” justified the sovereignty of the people as the source of power and the formation of the state as a contract between the people and the government. The protection of personal safety and property rights was the primary reason for the social contract, according to which the union of people into a commonwealth and subordination to government is the protection of their safety and property. The government is only a guardian public rights. If the government has failed to protect the rights of citizens, it means that it has not lived up to their trust and, therefore, can no longer claim obedience on the part of citizens.

The idea of resistance to despotic power occupied the most important place in the ideology and political struggle of the 17th-18th centuries. Liberals were largely divided on how to resist government overreach. In general, liberalism recognized the right to revolutionary resistance to despotism and justified not only the revolutions in England and France, but also the American War of Independence.

In addition to the principle of governing with the consent of citizens, liberalism also substantiated the principle of governing on the basis of law. The purpose of the state is to ensure the rule of law, the requirements of which it itself must obey. Classical liberalism strongly advocated the equality of citizens before the law, defended legal basis democracy and parliamentarism. Equality in freedom under universal law - such is the liberal imperative of law.

In the economic field, liberals defended the principle of free market exchange, personal entrepreneurial initiative, competition, and condemned protectionism and political interference in the economy. Liberals of that time saw the main function of the state in protecting private property, establishing a general framework for free competition, maintaining order and monitoring the law-abiding behavior of citizens, as well as protecting the foreign policy sovereignty of the country. The state is just a "night watchman". The slogan "Anarchy plus a constable" well reflected the essence of this point of view.

The most consistent concept of liberal democracy and constitutionalism was formulated by one of the leading ideologists of the American bourgeois revolution, T. Payne. Paine considered the state a necessary evil: the smaller it is, the better for society. Endowed with inalienable rights, free and equal individuals by nature precede the state in the past, present and future. A state is considered legitimate and civilized only if it is formed on the basis of the active consent of citizens, constitutionally formalized and recorded through parliamentary representative mechanisms. Such representation and such government do not have any special rights, they only have duties to their citizens.

Liberals saw enough in democratic representative government efficient mechanism protecting the interests of the individual and society. The theorists of liberalism, in particular J. Locke and especially the followers of S.-L. Montesquieu, substantiated the principle of separation of powers into legislative, executive and judicial, which should check and balance each other. The system of checks and balances was seen as an obstacle to the usurpation of power by anyone, be it an individual, a party, a branch of government or a majority. A democratic majority, unrestricted by anything, can also become a despot, liberals believed. Therefore, in a democracy there must be a center of resistance to democracy, i.e. electoral despotism of the majority. Minority rights must be guaranteed. In essence, liberals defended the right to political opposition.

In the spiritual sphere, liberalism leaned towards tolerance and compromise. Freedom of opinion and speech for a liberal is the most important principle of life.

Liberalism played a huge role in the destruction of the ideological values of traditional society. He established a new democratic creed:

Individualism, which sees the main task of society and the state in providing each individual with opportunities to develop his abilities;

Freedom, which must be ensured within the limits of law to the greatest extent possible for each individual;

Equality, as the statement that all people are equal by nature and have equal rights and opportunities;

Fraternity, understood as the cooperation of people in creating a prosperous society and the refusal to use their freedom to harm others.

Liberal reformism

The ideology of classical liberalism began to change in the 19th century. Liberalism evolved towards liberal reformism. One of the first among the ideologists of liberalism to see the need and promise of this strategy was J. St. Mill (1806-1877), who already in the middle of the 19th century pointed out the need for a flexible social policy, aimed at smoothing out those unevenness that fate has unfairly endowed humanity with, but within the framework of the currently existing social order.

The principle of state non-interference in the market economy was also questioned. State regulation of the economy and reforms began to be seen as a necessary condition for improving society and resolving its contradictions.

The development trend of bourgeois reformism has become noticeable since the 70s of the 19th century. Reforms in the field of the electoral system, income tax collection, development of antitrust and labor legislation This period was noted in the USA, England, France, and Germany. State intervention in the economy intensified during the First World War and especially during the global crisis (1929-1933).

The English economist J. Keynes (1883-1946) made a huge contribution to the formation of the doctrine of liberal reformism. His program, formulated under the influence of the global economic crisis, included active government intervention in the socio-economic sphere, in particular, a comprehensive increase in government spending, expansion of public works, inflationary and cyclical tax policies, cyclical balancing of the budget, achieving a balance of “demand” and “full employment”, etc. Liberal reformism according to Keynes received its political embodiment in the “New Deal” of President F.D. Roosevelt, thanks to which the United States emerged from the economic crisis and successfully carried out a deep economic restructuring of society.

The “finest hour” of liberal reformism in the United States occurred in the 60s of the 20th century, during the reign of the administrations of J. Kennedy and L. Johnson. The ideologists of liberal reformism put forward the concept of the “welfare state,” which reflected the new role of the state in social sphere Western countries. Social policy in capitalist countries has become the most important area of state activity, and allocations for social needs have grown in gigantic proportions. The optimistic determination of ideologists and politicians was associated with success scientific and technological revolution and economic growth. It seemed that the era of technical answers to social problems had arrived, and economic growth with rational social policies would finally solve social problems and end poverty.

Social liberalism has indeed managed to resolve many issues related to education, health care, social insurance, employment, minority rights, and increasing citizen participation in the political process. But unemployment and poverty remained, although on a scale not comparable to that of the 19th century. Social liberalism also gave rise to new problems. The expansion of state public policies led to the growth of bureaucratic structures and the bureaucratization of politics. Increase social programs gave rise to a kind of “revolution of growing claims” and citizens began to look at the state as a body that should provide them with all rights, including social ones, on an ever-increasing scale. Many other problems arose that required new ideological approaches in the 80s of the 20th century.

Despite significant differences, liberal reformism did not break its ideological connection with classical liberalism. The bridge between old and new liberalism was a commitment to individual freedom, social progress, political pluralism and democracy. Only now the achievement of all this was recognized as impossible without state intervention, since only the state, being, from the point of view of liberals, a supra-class body, is capable of acting as an impartial mediator between social interests and acting for the common good and in the name of the freedom of everyone.

The merit of liberal ideology is that it affirmed the individual-personal principle of being. This ideology was able to convey democracy, freedom and the intrinsic value of the human “I” as universal, generally civilized values in their essence. Liberalism changed political practice and political language, instilled a new legal culture, a new legal consciousness, and served the cause of creating civil society and the rule of law.

Thus, liberal ideology is a fairly integral theoretical construct that has a number of characteristics. In economics, this is the justification of economic freedom and property rights, in social relations - equality of opportunity, in politics - the defense of representative, pluralistic democracy, in spiritual life - freedom of thought and speech, in religion - anti-clericalism, in morality - individualism. Modern liberalism is a spokesman for the interests of the middle class. As an ideology, modern liberalism, like classical liberalism, advocates a dynamic society oriented towards social progress, in which the personal factor, personal merit and results would be in the foreground. This ideology requires from the individual the maximum realization of his abilities, the desire to take responsibility for his own destiny, without counting on charity and guarantees of the patron state.

Socialist ideology

Socialist ideology has a long history. However, the term “socialism” first appeared in public literature only in the 30s of the 19th century. Literary authorship is attributed to the French theorist Pierre Leroux, who in 1834 wrote the article “On Individualism and Socialism.”

Ideas that later came to be called socialist appeared in the 16th century. They reflected the spontaneous protest of the exploited strata of the period of primitive accumulation of capital. These theories about the ideal social order, which corresponds to human nature, eliminates exploitation, raises the welfare of the lower class and eliminates private property, came to be called utopian socialism. Its founders are the Englishman Thomas More (1478-1535), author of the book “Utopia,” and the Italian Tommaso Campanella (1568-1639), who wrote “The City of the Sun.” They believed that it was public property that created the conditions for fair distribution, equality, well-being and social peace. Social equality was seen as the highest good for both the individual and society.

During the XVII-XIX centuries. many theorists tried to discover the formula for an ideal society, since capitalism, having created a world overflowing with wealth, still abounded in poverty. The greatest contribution to the development of socialist concepts of a utopian orientation was made by the French A. Saint-Simon (1760-1825), Charles Fourier (1772-1837) and the Englishman Robert Owen (1771-1858). Their views were formed under the influence of the Great French Revolution and the rapid development of industrial capital. The views of the theorists of utopian socialism differed significantly among themselves on many issues, but they all believed that society already had the conditions for immediate reform of the system on fair terms in order to end inequality, poverty and vices. The initiative for change must come from the top, from the haves, who are obliged to help the poor and make everyone happier. Socialist ideology purposefully defended the interests of workers, social progress and believed in a wonderful future for humanity.

During this period, the extreme manifestation of socialism emerged - communist ideology. Communist ideology was more consistent in its desire to transform society on the basis of equality through the establishment of public ownership of the means of production and sometimes also of consumer goods.

The theorists of utopian socialism formulated the basic principles of organizing a future just society: from each according to his abilities, each ability according to his deeds, comprehensive and harmonious development of the individual, elimination of differences between city and countryside, diversity and change of physical and spiritual labor, free development of each as a condition for free development of all. Utopian socialists believed that either all people should be happy, or no one. The socialist system must provide real opportunity be happy for everyone. Socialist ideology early XIX century was imbued with an emotional and figurative idea of the future and resembled social poetry.

Representatives of utopian socialism and communism had different approaches to the methods of implementing their ideas. Saint-Simon and Fourier believed that the main path is reform, and the sacred cause of the poor is also the cause of the rich. Others, for example, Mably, Meslier, Babeuf, called on the working people for revolution.

Marxism as an ideology of the proletariat

In the 40s of the 19th century, Marxism emerged as a theoretical expression of the proletarian movement. K. Marx (1818-1883) and F. Engels (1820-1895) created a philosophical, economic and socio-political theory that had a huge impact on the history of mankind in the second century. half of the 19th century and XX centuries. Marxism and communist ideology have become synonymous.

Communist society in the Marxist understanding is not an open ideal model of a happy system, but a natural result of the progress of civilization. Capitalism itself creates the preconditions for social revolution, the abolition of private property and the transition to socialism. The main contradiction that explodes capitalism from within is the contradiction between the social nature of labor, formed by industry and the market, and private ownership of the means of production. Capitalism, as Marxists believed, also creates its own social gravedigger - the proletariat. The liberation of the proletariat is the leitmotif of the social revolution. But by liberating itself, the proletariat liberates all working people from all forms of exploitation. The achievement of socialism is possible only as a result of the historical creativity of the proletariat, the accomplishment of the proletarian revolution and the establishment of the dictatorship of the proletariat. The slogan "Workers of all countries, unite!" became a mobilizing call in the fight against exploiters. Marxism as an ideology turned socialism into the struggle of millions; for many decades this ideology became the spiritual weapon of the exploited and oppressed.

According to Marx and Engels, the development of the communist formation goes through a number of stages: the transition period, the first phase and the highest phase. This Long procces transformation of the life of society on a truly humanistic basis, when a person becomes the highest being for a person. Communism in its highest development is a society of free, conscious workers, where public self-government will be established, and the state will wither away, where there will be no classes, and social equality will be embodied in the principle “From each according to his abilities, to each according to his needs.” In the Marxist interpretation of communism there is a movement towards the unlimited flourishing of the individual in conditions of freedom from exploitation. Communism is the beginning of the true history of mankind.

The revolutionary pathos of Marxism was embodied in the theory and practice of Leninism, which became theoretical basis proletarian revolution in Russia and socialist construction in the USSR.

Despite the serious damage caused by the collapse Soviet Union, the liquidation of the Eastern Bloc of socialist states, orthodox Marxism retains significant influence on certain social groups in post-Soviet society. This is due to the attractiveness of the ideas of social equality, justice and social guarantees from the state for labor, free education, medical care, housing.

Simultaneously with the revolutionary direction in socialist thought, another direction was formed, which was also based on Marxism, but tried to adapt to new historical realities not through forced revolutionism, but through social reforms. In the 20th century, this direction began to be called social democratic as opposed to communist.

Democratic socialism

The ideology of modern social democracy has its roots in the reformist movement in the Second International (1889-1914), represented by E. Bernstein, Vandervelde, Vollmar, Jaures and others, to the views of the theorists of the Workers' Socialist International, which existed in the interwar period, to the concepts of liberal reformism, including special place belongs to Keynesianism.

A feature of the ideology of the Social Democrats is reformism, the rationale for the policy of regulation and redistribution of income in an effectively functioning market economy. One of the leading theoreticians of the Second International, E. Bernstein, denied the inevitability of the collapse of capitalism and any connection between the onset of socialism and this collapse. Socialism does not boil down to replacing private property with public property, Bernstein believed. The path to socialism is the search for new “comradely forms of production” in the conditions of the peaceful development of a capitalist economy and political democracy. “The ultimate goal is nothing, the movement is everything” - this became the slogan of reformist socialism.

The modern concept of “democratic socialism” in its main features was created in the 50s as a result of the adoption of the Declaration of Principles of the Socialist International at the international conference of socialist parties in Frankfurt am Main in 1951. “Democratic socialism,” according to the program documents of social democracy, is a path that differs from both capitalism and “real socialism.” Capitalism, according to social democrats, has developed enormous productive forces, but has placed property rights above human rights. The communists, where they came to power, destroyed freedom, created a new class society and an inefficient economy based on forced labor.

Social Democrats attach equal importance to both the principle of personal freedom and the principles of solidarity and justice. The traditional formula: “Socialism = socialization + planned economy,” according to theorists of social democracy, should be completely discarded. The criterion for the difference between capitalism and socialism lies not in the principles of economic organization, but in the position that a person occupies in society, in his freedom, the right to participate in decision-making that is significant for the state, the opportunity to realize himself in various fields public life.

The components of the concept of “democratic socialism” are political, economic and social democracy.

The idea of political democracy is based on the principles of freedom and equality. Social democrats recognize the possibility of the existence of various forms of democracy, but in any case, the fundamental requirements of political democracy must be: the existence of free elections, providing citizens with a real choice between various political alternatives, the possibility of changing the government by peaceful means, the guarantee of individual and minority rights, the existence of an independent judiciary based on the rule of law. Democracy, in the interpretation of social democrats, is presented as an absolute value that has a supra-class character. Speaking for “pure” democracy, social democrats understand the state as the supreme social institution, within which opposing social interests are regulated and reconciled. The state acts as the main body social changes and progressive development.

Providing a rationale for economic democracy, the Social Democrats emphasized in their official documents that they advocated public ownership, but within the framework of a mixed economy. Private ownership is available in certain sectors of the economy. The variety of forms of ownership should work for production efficiency. Collective property is not just an end in itself, but should serve as a tool for improving the well-being of society.

Social Democrats give priority to market relations in their economic strategy. The state, in turn, must regulate the market: not allow only big business to dominate it, and ensure that technologies are used for the benefit of the whole society. In other words, international social democracy has recognized the principle: "Competition - as much as possible, planning - as much as necessary."

The achievements of economic democracy are also linked to the development of “participation” of workers’ representatives in the management of capitalist firms, as well as the development of “self-government.” In general, the economic sphere should have a clearly defined social orientation and be controlled by society, but without losing the efficiency inherent in a market economy.

The term “social democracy” denotes the qualitative side of people’s way of life, which comprehensively characterizes the degree of human social freedom, the conditions and content of its labor activity, accessibility of the education system and spiritual values, state environment, living conditions. The struggle for social democracy is, first of all, a struggle for more high quality life.

Social democrats in Western countries, being in power or influencing the government, largely contributed to the democratization of society, the expansion and consolidation of the rights and freedoms of workers. Their real policy was close to the practice of liberal reformism, but was distinguished by a greater social orientation and the struggle for social justice.

The strengthening of the position of the Social Democrats is also due to the fact that authoritarian communism turned out to be a path strewn with enormous sacrifices and paved with economic and social failures. Social democracy continues to seek a balance between freedom and social justice and strives for a social state in which the danger of an unruly flourishing of bureaucracy is eliminated, forward planning does not tie society hand and foot and the personal responsibility of all members of society is placed in the foreground.

Socialist ideology, in both its revolutionary and reformist modifications, has had and continues to have a serious influence on working people, especially those who are hired. The influence of this ideology is due to the fact that it is aimed at a fair society, without exploitation, with equal social status for citizens. Socialism for the first time connected the possibility of realizing high humanistic ideals with the need to abolish private property and destroy the exploitative state.

Ideologically, the main confrontation of the 20th century is the struggle between liberal and socialist ideas. The collapse of the Eastern Bloc of socialist states put socialist ideology on the defensive. But socialism, understood as a humane, democratic society, still remains an “open question,” an intellectual and practical task for which supporters of socialist ideology do not yet have a solution.

The general trend in the development of socialist ideology at the end of the 20th century is the liberalization of socialism, although radical forms - communism and neo-Bolshevism - also retain influence.

Conservatism

Conservatism arose at the end of the 18th century as a reaction to the French Enlightenment and the French Revolution. Conservative ideology was a response to the challenge of liberalism and radicalism. Since conservatism arises precisely as a contrast to liberal views on human nature, freedom, equality and fraternity, it is not considered an independent, “pure” ideology. Conservatism is interpreted as an epiphenomenon of liberalism, i.e. a phenomenon accompanying liberalism, an appendage of liberalism. This birth of conservatism did not prevent it from turning into a fairly coherent system of views, which has undergone significant evolution, adapting to the modern world.

The intellectual conservative tradition was developed by the Englishman E. Burke (1729-1797) and the French J. de Maistre (1754-1821). L. de Bonald (1754-1840). They became the founders of the traditional conservative movement, which was distinguished by its rejection of the nihilistic nature of the French Revolution of the 18th century, bourgeois democracy and individual freedom. The “founding fathers” of the political ideology of conservatism expressed the interests of the aristocracy, those layers that capitalism deprived of a stable social status and class privileges.

Conservatives contrasted the liberals’ optimistic view of human nature, whose mind and will are able to transform society on the basis of freedom, with the idea of the initial imperfection of human nature, due to which excellent projects for the radical reorganization of society are doomed to failure, since they violate the established order for centuries. Conservatives believed that the true “nature” of man is completely alien to the concept of “freedom.” Only concrete historical freedoms, obtained by ancestors, verified by traditions and accepted as historical heritage, have meaning.

The most important principle of conservative ideology is moral absolutism, the recognition of the existence of unshakable moral ideals and values. These moral ideals and personal values must be formed by all means of social and government influence and curb the “sinful” nature of man. Politics in this sense also cannot be free from morality.

Another important principle of conservatism is traditionalism. Traditional principles are, according to theorists of conservatism, the foundation of any healthy society. Social reforms must be based on the spiritual traditions and values created by all previous generations. E. Burke believed that in any society there is solidarity between generations. Every political figure who makes decisions must do so responsibly not only to his contemporaries, but also to his ancestors and descendants. E. Burke demonstratively contrasted the constructive rationalism of liberals with an apology for “prejudice.” It is in “ordinary prejudices”, in tradition, that wisdom inherited from ancestors is accumulated and the collective mind, including political intelligence, is reflected.

The traditionalism of conservative ideology is closely related to political realism. A doctrinaire approach is alien to conservatism. Political practice, as conservatives believe, should not be based on bare theoretical schemes. Reforms that are carried out in society should not be designed for an abstract person, but for real people of flesh and blood, whose lifestyle and established habits cannot be suddenly changed without great misfortune. Conservatism returned a sense of historicity to political thought and defended continuity in turbulent revolutionary times. historical development and conservation useful parts"an old public building", instead of inventing abstract designs on " clean slate"Revolutionary history.

Conservatism, especially modern conservatism, has a positive attitude towards the idea of equality of people before God. Equality exists in the field of morality and virtue, perhaps even political equality. But all forms of conservative ideology do not accept social equality and are anti-egalitarian. No society is conceivable without hierarchy and, therefore, inequality. This is precisely the basis of the order corresponding to “nature”. Egalitarianism destroys the social hierarchy on which social stability is based. At the same time, anti-egalitarianism does not mean that conservatives advocate a rigid pyramidal structure of society. Social mobility vertically and horizontally is important for social development. At the end of the 18th century, E. Burke formulated the principle of meritocracy, according to which power should be in the hands of worthy people, people from various social groups. Having accepted political democracy over time, conservatives became supporters of elitist democracy, when the democratic mechanism makes it possible to form a professional political elite and promote worthy people to power. Worthy - worthy - this is the principle of conservatives in relation to the social status of an individual.

Conservative ideology has a negative attitude towards the tendency to politicize people, which became especially pronounced in the 20th century. Private interests are more important to a person than politics. Politics is a field of activity political elites. The participation of the masses in political life must be limited and controlled.

Conservatism tends to focus on local, regional, and national values. Society is not scattered into separate grains of sand of individuals, but is focused on the general, the whole, on “we”. It is concentrated primarily at the local level: in the family, community, parish, craft corporation, local government institutions. The social “we” at the local level is a natural source of stability, education, preservation of traditions, and the formation of patriotism.

Conservatism in the 19th century gradually turns into a modification of ideology that accepts some of the values of liberalism, primarily political. The bourgeoisie, having survived revolutions and won political power, also sought support in new socio-political ideas. Special attention In conservatism, they attracted the desire for the unity of society, for means of strengthening the authority of power, for hierarchy, and for emphasizing the connecting role of spiritual values.

In the 20th century, conservative theories developed under the significant influence of classical liberalism. In the United States, so-called market conservatism arose, which viewed trends towards state regulation of the economy as a dangerous break with the liberal traditions of Western civilization, as a “road to slavery” and totalitarianism.

Until the 70s of the 20th century, conservatism occupied a peripheral position and was on the defensive in relation to liberal reformism and social democratic theories. The rise of conservatism began in the second half of the 70s and especially from the beginning of the 80s, when political forces that adopted the ideology of conservatism came to power in many Western countries.

Neoconservatism

The objective basis for the emergence of neoconservatism was the structural crisis of the capitalist economy. Previous means used to overcome crisis situations and justified by the ideology of liberal reformism turned out to be insufficient. More radical means were required. The belief that scientific and technological progress, by virtue of its rational mechanism, will resolve social problems. It turned out that in order to stabilize society, strong moral reinforcement and additional means of legitimation were needed. Neoconservatism was a response to the “challenge” of the crisis state of scientific and technological civilization and the weakening of its spiritual and moral foundations. It has proven to be more effective than other ideologies. Neoconservative ideology more strongly stimulated individual achievement, and neoconservative policies found sufficient effective means solutions to economic and social problems.

In terms of worldview, neoconservatism advocates the priority of the principle of freedom over the principle of equality. Equality is possible only as equality of opportunity, but not as equality of conditions and results. Social order is realized, first of all, through the social hierarchy, which arises organically, naturally. While defending the idea of freedom and human rights, neoconservatism focuses on a person’s responsibilities to himself and to society. Human rights only in combination with awareness of responsibilities and developed sense debts ennoble the personality.

In the economic field, neoconservatism advocates limiting government intervention in the market economy.

The state is obliged to promote private initiative, and not stifle it. This assistance is possible through the provision of tax incentives, stimulation of private investment and market supply. Being opponents of patronage regulation of the economy, neoconservatives rely on the personal factor: personal initiative, personal interest, personal opportunities and personal responsibility - these are the most important and unshakable values of an effectively functioning economy.

The social policy of the neoconservatives is closely related to the economic policy. Three basic principles constitute the essence of neoconservative social doctrine: the principle of solidarity, based on the idea of the unity of labor and capital, the principle of justice, i.e. "fair distribution of income and property", "fair wage", "fair tax policy" and others, the principle of subsidiarity - assistance to promote self-help and private initiative. In accordance with these principles, individuals and small communities should solve their own socio-economic problems, and delegate to the state only those issues that cannot be solved in a similar way Thus, the essence of the socio-economic policy of the neoconservatives is to create conditions that allow workers to save, acquire property, gain financial independence and independence from state “social care”.

Neoconservatives believe that social benefits should be provided free of charge to those who need them and are not able to provide for themselves. All other citizens must pay for all the services they need and use, but receive them in the form and quality that they desire and that their material wealth allows.

A social market economy is the formula of the neoconservatives. The social market economy, from the point of view of modern conservatives, is not only the most successful economic form, strengthening and expanding the class of owners. It is also best suited to people: it gives tasks to citizens, but does not control them.

In the political sphere, neoconservatives are faithful to the old conservative tradition - democracy must be vertical, elitist. Political activity- not a privilege and not a monopoly of one social group, namely a profession available to everyone, but only if he has the appropriate abilities, vocation and special education. Everyone can and even should be interested in politics, since it concerns everyone, and everyone can participate in the political life of the country in one way or another, but only professionals should be politicians and work in politics in order to rid political decisions of amateurism, and politics itself from ochlocratic tendencies.

Neoconservatism absorbed the principles of classical liberalism, primarily the principle of individual freedom, but managed to link them with such traditional values as religion, family, law and order, decentralization and self-government, and ethnocultural diversity.

The organic concept of society, which neoconservatism preserved, contributed to the perception of society as an integrity, where the behavior of individuals with their passions and selfishness is subordinated to established structures, values, and traditions. Thanks to this, society remains stable and ensures continuity of development, the connection of the past with the future.

All modern political ideologies, reflecting the conflicts of social existence, are in constant development. Ideologies acquire new historical forms, borrowing from each other value guidelines that better fulfill the role of mobilization, organization of certain social strata, and direct their social action. This is how liberalism becomes “more socialist” and socialism becomes “more liberal”. Conservatism internalizes the values of liberalism. Modern ideologies seem to be retreating from a one-sided vision of the world and moving along the path of interpenetration and complementarity. However, this does not yet lead to the loss of their self-identity. Ideologies reflect both social interest and the search for more realistic and effective programs social development. The competition of forces vying for power, as well as the competition of ideologies, is an element of power relations, it is the engine political development, one of the guarantees of his democratic tendencies.

Chapter 6. State §1. Genesis, essence and functions of the state

§2. Types and forms of state

§3. Rule of law and civil society

Chapter 7. Legislative power §1. The concept of parliament. Its role and significance. Classification of foreign parliaments

§2. Structure of Parliament

Chapter 8. Executive power §1. Executive power. Government

§2. Types of Governments

§3. The procedure for the formation (formation) of the government

§4. Composition and structure of government

§5. Government procedure

§6. Powers (competence) of the government

§7. Executive power. Head of State

§8. Powers of the head of state

Chapter 9. Judicial power §1. The concept of court and judicial power. The place and role of the court in the state mechanism

§2. Judicial verticals

§3. Common Court System

§4. Special courts

§5. Non-state courts

Chapter 10. Local authorities §1. The concept of local government and management. Legal regulation of local self-government and management

§2. Main features of administrative-territorial division

§3. Structure and forms of local government bodies

§4. Powers (competence) of local government and self-government bodies

§5. Relations of local authorities with the central government

§6. Local executive bodies

Sectioniii. Political processes

Chapter 11. Political process §1. The essence and main characteristics of the political process

§2. Typology of political actions

§3. Political participation

Chapter 12. Political elites and political leadership §1. Political elite

§2. Political leadership

§2. Party systems, structures and coalitions

§3. Public organizations and movements Concept and distinctive features of public organizations and movements

Chapter 14. Representation and elections §1. Suffrage

§2. Types of electoral systems

Divisioniv. Political culture and ideology

Chapter 15. Political ideologies §1. The essence and functions of political ideology

§2. Modern political ideologies

Chapter 16. Political culture and political socialization

§1. The concept of political culture and its structure

Section V. International relations and foreign policy

Chapter 17. System of international relations

§1. The essence and concept of international relations

§2. The concept and essence of foreign policy of states

§3. Goals, functions and means of foreign policy

Chapter 18. Politics and global problems of our time

§1. The essence and ways to solve global problems of our time

§2. Socio-political aspects of global problems of our time

Basic terms and definitions

§2. Modern political ideologies

Liberalism

In the political history of the West, the emergence of liberalism is associated with the development of capitalist society and coincides in time with the period of bourgeois revolutions of the 18th-19th centuries. Theorists of classical liberalism J. Locke (1632-1704), Adam Smith (1723-1790), S.-L. Montesquieu (1689-1755) expressed the interests of the third estate, leading the fight against feudal reaction. Their ideas formed the basis of the concept of liberal democracy.

The liberal theory of the “social contract” justified the sovereignty of the people as the source of power and the formation of the state as a contract between the people and the government. The protection of personal safety and property rights was the primary reason for the social contract, according to which the union of people into a commonwealth and subordination to government is the protection of their safety and property. The government is only the guardian of public rights. If the government has failed to protect the rights of citizens, it means that it has not lived up to their trust and, therefore, can no longer claim obedience on the part of citizens.

In addition to the principle of governing with the consent of citizens, liberalism also substantiated the principle of governing on the basis of law. The purpose of the state is to ensure the rule of law, the requirements of which it itself must obey. Classical liberalism strongly advocated the equality of citizens before the law and defended the legal foundations of democracy and parliamentarism. Equality in freedom under universal law is the liberal imperative of law.

The most consistent concept of liberal democracy and constitutionalism was formulated by one of the leading ideologists of the American bourgeois revolution, T. Paine. Paine considered the state a necessary evil: the smaller it is, the better for society. Endowed with inalienable rights, free and equal individuals by nature precede the state in the past, present and future. A state is considered legitimate and civilized only if it is formed on the basis of the active consent of citizens, constitutionally formalized and recorded through parliamentary representative mechanisms. Such representation and such government do not have any special rights, they only have duties to their citizens.

In democratic representative government, liberals saw a fairly effective mechanism for protecting the interests of the individual and society. Theorists of liberalism, in particular J. Locke and especially the followers of S.-L. Montesquieu, substantiated the principle of separation of powers into legislative, executive and judicial, which must check and balance each other. The system of checks and balances was seen as an obstacle to the usurpation of power by anyone, be it an individual, a party, a branch of government or a majority. A democratic majority, unrestricted by anything, can also become a despot, liberals believed. Therefore, in a democracy there must be a center of resistance to democracy, i.e. electoral despotism of the majority. Minority rights must be guaranteed. In essence, liberals defended the right to political opposition.

In the spiritual sphere, liberalism leaned towards tolerance and compromise. Freedom of opinion and speech for a liberal is the most important principle of life.

Liberalism played a huge role in the destruction of the ideological values of traditional society. He established a new democratic creed:

Individualism, which sees the main task of society and the state in providing each individual with opportunities to develop his abilities;

Freedom, which must be ensured within the limits of law to the greatest extent possible for each individual;

Equality, as the statement that all people are equal by nature and have equal rights and opportunities;

Fraternity, understood as the cooperation of people in creating a prosperous society and the refusal to use their freedom to harm others.

Liberal reformism

The ideology of classical liberalism began to change in the 19th century. Liberalism evolved towards liberal reformism. One of the first among the ideologists of liberalism to see the necessity and promise of this strategy was J. St. Mill (1806-1877), who already in the middle of the 19th century pointed out the need for a flexible social policy aimed at smoothing out the unevenness that fate had unfairly endowed humanity with, but within the framework of the currently existing social order.

The development trend of bourgeois reformism has become noticeable since the 70s of the 19th century. Reforms in the field of the electoral system, income tax collection, and the development of antitrust and labor legislation marked this period in the USA, England, France, and Germany. State intervention in the economy intensified during the First World War and especially during the global crisis (1929-1933).

The English economist J. Keynes (1883-1946) made a huge contribution to the formation of the doctrine of liberal reformism. His program, formulated under the influence of the global economic crisis, included active government intervention in the socio-economic sphere, in particular, a comprehensive increase in government spending, expansion of public works, inflationary and cyclical tax policies, cyclical balancing of the budget, achieving a balance of “demand” and “full employment”, etc. Liberal reformism according to Keynes received its political embodiment in the “new course” of President F.D. Roosevelt, thanks to which the United States emerged from the economic crisis and successfully carried out a deep economic restructuring of society.

The “finest hour” of liberal reformism in the United States occurred in the 60s of the 20th century, during the reign of the administrations of J. Kennedy and L. Johnson. The ideologists of liberal reformism put forward the concept of the “welfare state,” which reflected the new role of the state in the social sphere of Western countries. Social policy in capitalist countries has become the most important area of state activity, and allocations for social needs have grown in gigantic proportions. The optimistic determination of ideologists and politicians was associated with the successes of the scientific and technological revolution and economic growth. It seemed that the era of technical answers to social problems had arrived, and economic growth with rational social policies would finally solve social problems and end poverty.

Social liberalism has indeed managed to resolve many issues related to education, health care, social insurance, employment, minority rights, and increasing citizen participation in the political process. But unemployment and poverty remained, although on a scale not comparable to that of the 19th century. Social liberalism also gave rise to new problems. The expansion of state public policies led to the growth of bureaucratic structures and the bureaucratization of politics. The increase in social programs gave rise to a kind of “revolution of growing claims” and citizens began to look at the state as a body that should provide them with all rights, including social ones, in an ever-increasing amount. Many other problems arose that required new ideological approaches in the 80s of the 20th century.

The merit of liberal ideology is that it affirmed the individual-personal principle of being. This ideology was able to convey democracy, freedom and the intrinsic value of the human “I” as universal, generally civilized values in their essence. Liberalism changed political practice and political language, instilled a new legal culture, a new legal consciousness; served the cause of creating a civil society and the rule of law.

Thus, liberal ideology is a fairly integral theoretical construct that has a number of characteristics. In economics, this is the justification for economic freedom and property rights; in social relations – equality of opportunity; in politics – defense of representative, pluralistic democracy; in spiritual life – freedom of thought and speech; in religion – anti-clericalism; in morality - individualism. Modern liberalism is a spokesman for the interests of the middle class. As an ideology, modern liberalism, like classical liberalism, advocates a dynamic society oriented towards social progress, in which the personal factor, personal merit and results would be in the foreground. This ideology requires from the individual the maximum realization of his abilities, the desire to take responsibility for his own destiny, without counting on charity and guarantees of the patron state.

Socialist ideology

Ideas that later came to be called socialist appeared in the 16th century. They reflected the spontaneous protest of the exploited strata of the period of primitive accumulation of capital. These theories about an ideal social order that corresponds to human nature, eliminates exploitation, raises the welfare of the lower class and eliminates private property, came to be called utopian socialism. Its founders are the Englishman Thomas More (1478-1535), author of the book “Utopia,” and the Italian Tommaso Campanella (1568-1639), who wrote “The City of the Sun.” They believed that it was public property that created the conditions for fair distribution, equality, well-being and social peace. Social equality was seen as the highest good for both the individual and society.

Theorists of utopian socialism formulated the basic principles of organizing a future just society: from each according to his abilities, to each ability according to his deeds; comprehensive and harmonious development of personality; eliminating differences between city and countryside; variety and change of physical and spiritual labor; the free development of each as a condition for the free development of all. Utopian socialists believed that either all people should be happy, or no one. The socialist system must provide a real opportunity for everyone to be happy. The ideology of the socialists of the early 19th century was imbued with an emotional and figurative idea of the future and resembled social poetry.

Marxism as an ideology of the proletariat

In the 40s of the 19th century, Marxism emerged as a theoretical expression of the proletarian movement. K. Marx (1818-1883) and F. Engels (1820-1895) created a philosophical, economic and socio-political theory that had a huge influence on the history of mankind in the second half of the 19th and 20th centuries. Marxism and communist ideology have become synonymous.

According to Marx and Engels, the development of the communist formation goes through a number of stages: the transition period, the first phase and the highest phase. This is a long process of transforming the life of society on truly humanistic principles, when a person becomes the highest being for man. Communism in its highest development is a society of free, conscious workers, where public self-government will be established and the state will wither away; where there will be no classes, and social equality will be embodied in the principle “From each according to his abilities, to each according to his needs.” In the Marxist interpretation of communism there is a movement towards the unlimited flourishing of the individual in conditions of freedom from exploitation. Communism is the beginning of the true history of mankind.

The revolutionary pathos of Marxism was embodied in the theory and practice of Leninism, which became the theoretical basis of the proletarian revolution in Russia and socialist construction in the USSR.

Despite the serious defeats caused by the collapse of the Soviet Union and the liquidation of the Eastern Bloc of socialist states, orthodox Marxism retains significant influence on certain social groups in post-Soviet society. This is due to the attractiveness of the ideas of social equality, justice and social guarantees from the state for labor, free education, medical care, and housing.

Simultaneously with the revolutionary direction in socialist thought, another direction was being formed, which was also based on Marxism, but tried to adapt to new historical realities not through forced revolutionism, but through social reforms. In the 20th century, this direction began to be called social democratic as opposed to communist.

Democratic socialism

The ideology of modern social democracy has its roots in the reformist movement in the Second International (1889-1914), represented by E. Bernstein, Vandervelde, Vollmar, Jaurès and others; to the views of the theoreticians of the Workers' Socialist International, which existed during the interwar period; concepts of liberal reformism, among which Keynesianism has a special place.

Social Democrats attach equal importance to both the principle of personal freedom and the principles of solidarity and justice. The traditional formula: “Socialism = socialization + planned economy,” according to theorists of social democracy, should be completely discarded. The criterion for the difference between capitalism and socialism lies not in the principles of economic organization, but in the position that a person occupies in society, in his freedom, the right to participate in decision-making that is significant for the state, and the opportunity to realize himself in various spheres of public life.

The components of the concept of “democratic socialism” are political, economic and social democracy.

Idea political democracy based on the principles of freedom and equality. Social democrats recognize the possibility of the existence of various forms of democracy, but in any case, the fundamental requirements of political democracy should be: the presence of free elections; providing citizens with genuine choice between different political alternatives; the possibility of changing the government through peaceful means; guarantee of individual and minority rights; the existence of an independent judicial system based on the rule of law. Democracy, in the interpretation of social democrats, is presented as an absolute value that has a supra-class character. Advocating for “pure” democracy, social democrats understand the state as the supreme social institution within which opposing social interests are regulated and reconciled. The state acts as the main body of social change and progressive development.

Giving rationale economic democracy, the Social Democrats emphasized in their official documents that they advocated public ownership, but within the framework of a mixed economy. Private ownership is available in certain sectors of the economy. The variety of forms of ownership should work for production efficiency. Collective property is not just an end in itself, but should serve as a tool for improving the well-being of society.

Social Democrats give priority to market relations in their economic strategy. The state, in turn, must regulate the market: not allow only big business to dominate it, and ensure that technologies are used for the benefit of the whole society. In other words, international social democracy has recognized the principle: “Competition as far as possible, planning as far as necessary.”

The term " social democracy" denotes the qualitative side of people's lifestyle, which comprehensively characterizes the degree of social freedom of a person, the conditions and content of his work activity, the availability of the education system and spiritual values, the state of the environment, and living conditions. The struggle for social democracy is, first of all, the struggle for higher quality life.

The strengthening of the position of the Social Democrats is also due to the fact that authoritarian communism turned out to be a path strewn with enormous sacrifices and paved with economic and social failures. Social democracy continues to seek a balance between freedom and social justice and strives for a social state in which the danger of an unruly flourishing of bureaucracy is eliminated; long-term planning does not tie society hand and foot and the personal responsibility of all members of society is placed in the foreground.

Conservatism

Another important principle of conservatism is traditionalism. Traditional principles are, according to theorists of conservatism, the foundation of any healthy society. Social reforms must be based on the spiritual traditions and values created by all previous generations. E. Burke believed that in any society there is solidarity between generations. Every political figure who makes decisions must do so responsibly not only to his contemporaries, but also to his ancestors and descendants. E. Burke demonstratively contrasted the constructive rationalism of liberals with an apology for “prejudices.” It is in “ordinary prejudices”, in tradition, that wisdom inherited from ancestors is accumulated and the collective mind, including political intelligence, is reflected.

The traditionalism of conservative ideology is closely related to political realism. A doctrinaire approach is alien to conservatism. Political practice, as conservatives believe, should not be based on bare theoretical schemes. The reforms that are carried out in society should not be designed for an abstract person, but for real people of flesh and blood, whose lifestyle and established habits cannot be suddenly changed without great misfortunes. Conservatism returned a sense of historicity to political thought, defended in turbulent revolutionary times the continuity of historical development and the preservation of useful parts of the “old social building”, instead of inventing abstract structures on the “blank slate” of revolutionary history.

Conservatism, especially modern conservatism, has a positive attitude towards the idea of equality of people before God. Equality exists in the field of morality and virtue, perhaps even political equality. But all forms of conservative ideology do not accept social equality and are anti-egalitarian. No society is conceivable without hierarchy and, therefore, inequality. This is precisely the basis of the order corresponding to “nature”. Egalitarianism destroys the social hierarchy on which social stability is based. At the same time, anti-egalitarianism does not mean that conservatives advocate a rigid pyramidal structure of society. Social mobility vertically and horizontally is important for social development. Back at the end of the 18th century, E. Burke formulated the principle of meritocracy, according to which power should be in the hands of worthy people, people from various social groups. Having accepted political democracy over time, conservatives became supporters of elitist democracy, when the democratic mechanism makes it possible to form a professional political elite and promote worthy people to power. Worthy - worthy - this is the principle of conservatives in relation to the social status of an individual.

Conservative ideology has a negative attitude towards the tendency to politicize people, which became especially pronounced in the 20th century. Private interests are more important to a person than politics. Politics is the sphere of activity of political elites. The participation of the masses in political life must be limited and controlled.

Conservatism tends to focus on local, regional, and national values. Society is not scattered into separate grains of sand of individuals, but is focused on the general, the whole, on “we”. It is focused primarily at the local level: in the family, community, parish, craft corporation, local government institutions. The social “we” at the local level is a natural source of stability, education, preservation of traditions, and the formation of patriotism.

Conservatism in the 19th century gradually turns into a modification of ideology that accepts some of the values of liberalism, primarily political. The bourgeoisie, having survived revolutions and won political power, also sought support in new socio-political ideas. Particular attention in conservatism was drawn to the desire for the unity of society, to means of strengthening the authority of power, to hierarchy, and to emphasizing the connecting role of spiritual values.

Neoconservatism

The objective basis for the emergence of neoconservatism was the structural crisis of the capitalist economy. Previous means used to overcome crisis situations and justified by the ideology of liberal reformism turned out to be insufficient. More radical means were required. The belief that scientific and technological progress, by virtue of its rational mechanism, will solve social problems has collapsed. It turned out that in order to stabilize society, strong moral reinforcement and additional means of legitimation were needed. Neoconservatism was a response to the “challenge” of the crisis state of scientific and technological civilization and the weakening of its spiritual and moral foundations. It has proven to be more effective than other ideologies. Neoconservative ideology more strongly stimulated individual achievements, and neoconservative policies found fairly effective means of solving economic and social problems.

In terms of worldview, neoconservatism advocates the priority of the principle of freedom over the principle of equality. Equality is possible only as equality of opportunity, but not as equality of conditions and results. Social order is realized primarily through social hierarchy, which arises organically, naturally. While defending the idea of freedom and human rights, neoconservatism focuses on a person’s responsibilities to himself and to society. Human rights only in combination with awareness of responsibilities and a developed sense of duty ennoble the individual.

In the economic field, neoconservatism advocates limiting government intervention in the market economy. The state is obliged to promote private initiative, and not stifle it. This assistance is possible through the provision of tax incentives, stimulation of private investment and market supply. Being opponents of patronage regulation of the economy, neoconservatives rely on the personal factor: personal initiative, personal interest, personal opportunities and personal responsibility - these are the most important and unshakable values of an effectively functioning economy.

The social policy of the neoconservatives is closely related to the economic policy. Three basic principles form the essence of neoconservative social doctrine: the principle of solidarity, based on the idea of the unity of labor and capital; the principle of justice, i.e. “fair distribution of income and property”, “fair wages”, “fair tax policy” and others; the principle of subsidiarity – assistance to promote self-help and private initiative. In accordance with these principles, individuals and small communities should solve their own socio-economic problems themselves, and entrust to the state only those issues that cannot be solved in a similar way. The essence of the socio-economic policy of the neoconservatives is to create conditions that allow workers to save, acquire property, gain financial independence and independence from state “social care”.

Neoconservatives believe that social benefits should be provided free of charge to those who need them and are not able to provide for themselves. All other citizens must pay for all the services that they need and use, but receive them in the form and quality that they desire and that their material wealth allows.

In the political sphere, neoconservatives are faithful to the old conservative tradition - democracy must be vertical, elitist. Political activity is not a privilege or a monopoly of one social group, but a profession available to everyone, but only if he has the appropriate abilities, vocation and special education. Everyone can and even should be interested in politics, since it concerns everyone, and everyone can participate in the political life of the country in one way or another, but only professionals should be politicians and work in politics in order to rid political decisions of amateurism, and politics itself from ochlocratic tendencies.

All modern political ideologies, reflecting the conflicts of social existence, are in constant development. Ideologies acquire new historical forms, borrowing from each other value guidelines that better fulfill the role of mobilization, organization of certain social strata, and direct their social action. This is how liberalism becomes “more socialist” and socialism becomes “more liberal”. Conservatism internalizes the values of liberalism. Modern ideologies seem to be retreating from a one-sided vision of the world and moving along the path of interpenetration and complementarity. However, this does not yet lead to the loss of their self-identity. Ideologies reflect both social interest and the search for more realistic and effective programs of social development. The competition of forces vying for power, as well as the competition of ideologies, is an element of power relations, it is the engine of political development, one of the guarantees of its democratic tendencies.

Preparation for the Unified State Exam on the topic: “ Political sphere life of society." Part A

A1. The feature of the state that distinguishes it from all other forms of association of people is

1) the presence of a legal system 2) the presence of a common economy

3) presence of governing bodies 4) presence of common values

A2. For civil society to exist, it is necessary to have

1) legislative branch of government 2) administrative apparatus

3) state ideology 4) private property

A3. At the polling station, citizen K. received a ballot paper, which contained only one name of a candidate for deputy of local authorities from the only party that has a monopoly ruling in society. What political regime exists in this state?

1) republican 2) ochlocratic

3) totalitarian 4) democratic

A4. Are the following statements about the party system true?

A. The presence of a particular party system is determined by many factors - historical traditions, the level of political culture, the balance of political forces.

B. Under a two-party system, the activities of opposition political parties are prohibited.

A5. One of the functions of democratic political power is

1) suppression of resistance from the dissatisfied part of the country’s population

2) retention of power in the hands of one political force

3) ensuring the influence of the ruling elite on all spheres of public life

4) search for mechanisms to ensure social stability

A6. Distinctive feature the rule of law is recognition

1) natural human rights as a core value

2) the principle of equality of citizens in income

3) parliament as an institution of legislative power

4) elections as the main mechanism for implementing democracy

A7. In the state of N., people actively go to the polls. Political glasnost makes extensive use of coercion, with many media outlets funded state budget, the army is vested with great powers, citizens must support the state ideology approved by the ruling party. What type political regime exists in this state?

1) democratic 2) anarchist

A8. Are the following statements about elections true?

A. An accurate and clear procedure for holding elections is a condition for the development of democracy.

B. In elections under the majoritarian electoral system, there is a close connection between voters and deputies.

1) only A is true 2) only B is true

3) both judgments are correct 4) both judgments are incorrect

A9. Political power relations include relationships between

1) parents and children 2) church and parishioners

3) man and nature 4) man and the state

A10. The formation of parties is associated with the spread of norms

1) morality 2) parliamentarism

3) rights 4) traditions

A11. As a result of the parliamentary elections in the state of M., a political crisis arose, the cause of which was disagreement over the presidential candidacy that arose between the two parties that won the elections with a minimal gap. What form of government exists in the state of M?

A12. Are the following statements about political power correct?

A. Power appeared with the emergence of human society and will always accompany its development in one form or another.

B. Power is a volitional relationship between people inherent in society.

1) only A is true 2) only B is true

3) both judgments are correct 4) both judgments are incorrect

A13. Are the following judgments about the state apparatus correct?

A. To perform each of the functions of the state, a professional apparatus is required, taking into account the specifics of the work being performed.

B. In the Russian Federation, the structure of the state apparatus includes only officials at the federal level.

1) only A is true 2) only B is true

3) both judgments are correct 4) both judgments are incorrect

A14. The role of mediator between civil society and the state is played by

1) political party 2) army

3) education 4) government apparatus

A15. A necessary element of which political regime is the presence of an independent judicial branch of government?

3) theocratic 4) democratic

A16. Citizen S. Participates in all election campaigns: meets with candidates for deputies, goes to rallies, votes in elections. He believes that with his active position he will be able to influence the authorities. What type of political culture is manifested in the behavior of citizen S.?

1) patriarchal 2) democratic

3) subject 4) activist

A17. Are the following judgments about the functions of political culture correct?

A. One of the functions of political culture is the education of a person in accordance with the political values established in the state.

1) only A is true 2) only B is true

3) both judgments are correct 4) both judgments are incorrect

A18. One of the branches of government in a democratic state

1) judiciary

2) cultural and information power

3) the power of the political elite

4) economic power

A19. The central place in liberal democratic ideology is occupied by the idea

1) equal distribution of material goods

2) civil society

3) class struggle

4) the need to eliminate exploitation

A20. In the state of Ch. After the parliamentary elections, the leader of the parliamentary majority began to form a government. At the same time, parliament members began agreeing on a candidate for the post of president, who will perform representative functions. What type of state does State X belong to?

1) presidential republic 2) constitutional monarchy

3) parliamentary republic 4) mixed republic

A21. Are the following statements about totalitarianism true?

A. Totalitarianism is the result of the development of post-industrial society.

B. The ideology of the ruling party becomes the official ideology of the state in a totalitarian society.

1) only A is true 2) only B is true

3) both judgments are correct 4) both judgments are incorrect

A22. Are the following statements about the judiciary correct?

A. The judiciary acts only when there is a conflict or dispute over the law.

B. An important function of the judiciary is the application of legal norms and conflict situations.

1) only A is true 2) only B is true

3) both judgments are correct 4) both judgments are incorrect

A23. The most important function political power during the pre-election period is

1) development of a unified ideology

2) formation of a political elite

3) strengthening the organization

4) increase in own electorate

A24. The main point of conducting an election campaign is to

1) provide support to candidates for elected positions

2) give voters the opportunity to get acquainted with the candidates’ programs

3) intensify political life in the country

4) help parties accumulate experience in political struggle

A25. The state of M. has a constitution. According to it, the legislative and judicial powers are subordinate to the executive, headed by the president. The backbone of power is the country's armed forces, as well as the church. What political regime exists in this state?

1) democratic 2) oligarchic

A26. Are the following statements about the political system true?

A. Public organizations are not elements political system.

B. The core of the political system is the state.

1) only A is true 2) only B is true

3) both judgments are correct 4) both judgments are incorrect

A27. The external function of the state includes the function

1) cultural 2) diplomatic

3) political 4) economic

A28. A necessary condition civil society is

1) the presence of a bicameral parliament

2) high level legal culture citizens

3) the existence of a market economy

4) the presence in the constitution of articles declaring the rights and freedoms of citizens

A29. In the state of Georgia, during voting, citizens receive lists of political parties competing for seats in parliament. According to the law, the winners will be parties that receive at least 7% of the votes; Among the candidates for deputy in a given constituency, only one, if he wins, will be able to take a seat in parliament. What kind of electoral system exists in this state?

1) mixed 2) majority

3) proportional 4) multi-member

A30. Are the following statements about political parties true?

A. The ruling political parties are all parties that have won seats in parliament.

B. One of the functions political party is ideological.

1) only A is true 2) only B is true

3) both judgments are correct 4) both judgments are incorrect

A31. In all cases when the President of the Russian Federation is unable to fulfill his duties, he temporarily performs them

1) Chairman of the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation
2) Chairman of the Government

3) Chairman of the Federation Council

4) Chairman of the Constitutional Court

A32. Political power arose as a result of people's need for

1) management of public relations

2) “strong hand”

3) social justice

A33. The goal of the rule of law is

1) development of mechanisms to curb inflation

2) creation of a vertical power

3) formation of the legal culture of society

4) creation of a legislative system

A34. The activities of one political party were banned in the state. What additional information will allow us to draw a conclusion about the features of the political regime existing in the state?

1) degree of monopolization of the economy

2) method of electing the head of state

3) the goals of this political party

4) structure of the legislative body

A35. Are the following judgments about the functions of political culture correct?

A. One of the functions of political culture is the education of a person in accordance with the political system existing in the country.

B. The mobilization function of political culture operates only in wartime.

1) only A is true 2) only B is true

3) both judgments are correct 4) both judgments are incorrect

A36. The communicative component of the political system includes

1) ideological principles

2) forms of interaction between parties

3) political norms

4) political organizations

A37. What qualifications exist in the Russian Federation for a candidate for the post of president in presidential elections?

1) educational 2) property

3) age 4) confessional

A38. There are two lists of candidates in the electoral district - from party S. and from party N. 180 thousand voters took part in the voting. Mandates between parties were distributed in accordance with the number of votes cast for it. What electoral system were used for elections in this constituency?

1) majoritarian 2) proportional

3) mixed 4) single-member

A39. Are the following statements about politics correct?

A. Politicians often find themselves faced with a dilemma: either take unpopular measures, or, by refusing to do so, further worsen the situation in the country.

B. The state is one of the main subjects of politics.

1) only A is true 2) only B is true

3) both judgments are correct 4) both judgments are incorrect

A40. Deputy State Duma works

1) on a temporary basis 2) part-time

3) on a permanent basis 4) on a contract basis

Answers to the test “Political sphere of social life”, part A

A1 – 1

A2 – 4

A3 – 3

A4 – 1

A5 – 4

A6 – 1

A7 – 3

A8 – 3

A9 – 4

A10 – 2

A11 – 3

A12 – 3

A13 – 1

A14 – 1

A15 – 4

A 16 – 2

A17 – 1

A18 – 1

A19 - 2

A 20 – 3

A 21 – 2

A 22 – 3

A 23 – 4

A 24 – 2

A 25 – 3

A 26 – 2

A 27 – 2

A 28 – 2

A 29 – 1

A 30 – 2

A 31 – 2

A 32 – 1

A 33 – 3

A 34 – 3

A 35 – 1

A 36 – 2

A 37 – 3

A 38 – 2

A 39 – 3

Political ideologies of our time. The main idea of ​​liberal democratic ideology is

§2. Modern political ideologies

Political ideologies of our time. The main idea of liberal democratic ideology is