Main social strata of the population. Life of the main segments of the population

SOCIAL ORGANIZATION AND CHURCH ORGANIZATION IN Rus'

Task 1. Make a plan to answer the question. What changes in the life of the Eastern Slavs contributed to the formation of the Old Russian people?

The formation of the Old Russian people was facilitated by:

• submission to the power of the Kyiv prince;
• participation of tribes in national affairs;
• joint military campaigns;
• smoothing out linguistic differences, forming a single Old Russian language;
• acceptance of Christianity, belief in one God;
• identifying oneself with the Russian people.

Task 2. Using the textbook text, fill out the table.

Write what strata the population of Western European countries consisted of in the Middle Ages.

In each European country, the inhabitants were divided into three classes: the clergy, the knighthood (feudal aristocracy and noble knights), the third class (citizens and peasants).

Task 3. Match Old Russian term and his explanation.

Answers:

Task 4. Using additional sources, independently draw up a diagram of “Church organization in Rus'.”

Task 5. Conduct your own historical research on the topic “Monasteries in Ancient Rus'.” Make a plan according to which you can create an essay on this topic.

1. The monasteries played important role in religious and cultural life Ancient Rus'.
2. From the very beginning of their foundation, the monasteries of Ancient Rus' represented something more than just religious institutions.
3. Monasteries were centers of education and writing, temples of art and architectural monuments.
4. The missionary role of monastic monks. Trained and enlightened the population.
5. Military-strategic significance of monasteries.

Task 6. Solve the crossword puzzle

Horizontally:

2. The first head of the church was Russian. ( Hilarion)
4. Head of the Christian Church in Ancient Rus'. ( Metropolitan)
5. Head of church authority in major cities. (Bishop )

Vertically:

1. Abbot of a monastery in Rus' (find in a reference book or on the Internet). ( Abbot )
3. Monk, one of the founders of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery. ( Anthony )

Task 7. Compare the organization of the Orthodox and Catholic churches. Record your findings.

There are many large and small differences between Orthodoxy and Catholicism, both in form and content. The main difference that led at one time to the division of the Christian Church into Eastern (Orthodox) and Western (Catholic) is the difference in organization. At the head of the Catholic Church is the Pope - the vicar of the Son of God on earth, who, according to Catholics, is infallible in his church decisions. Orthodoxy denies the Catholic dogma of the primacy of the Pope and his infallibility.

The Orthodox Church does not have a common center and includes several independent churches. In addition to the Russian Orthodox Church, there is Georgian, Serbian, Greek, Romanian, etc. These churches are governed by patriarchs, archbishops and metropolitans. Orthodox believe that Jesus Christ is the head of the Church. Unlike Orthodox Church, Catholicism is one Universal Church. All its parts are different countries the world are in communication with each other, follow the same creed and recognize the Pope as their head.

Task 8. Write a short essay on the topic “Spiritual values ​​of our ancestors”, note in it how Christian values ​​differed from pagan ones.

With the adoption and strengthening of Christianity in Rus', the spiritual values ​​of our ancestors changed significantly. Love for God and neighbor, piety and sacrifice, as the main values ​​of Christianity, acquired a dominant role in the life of the Russians.

If under the pagan religion we saw the flourishing of the cult of power - who is stronger is right, then Christianity brought love for one's neighbor. At the everyday level, this manifested itself in the fact that people began to look for compromises, trying to maintain relationships.

It cannot be said that the Slavs during pagan times did not have traditions of respect for parents and elders, but Christianity gave a new understanding of family and clan, based on the inviolability of relationships. In life this manifested itself in the strengthening family traditions. In addition, the concept of personal piety became significant, although in paganism an individual outside the collective did not have any significance, and piety was determined by the traditions of the community.

Also, I cannot say that our ancestors, with the adoption of Christianity, became more sacrificial for the sake of a common goal, sacrificing own principles for the common good. However, this value has changed its meaning. Loyalty to the family began to be replaced by fidelity and sacrifice in the name of God - more general concept, which ensured the unity of people not only within their own clan, but within the whole state.

Estates and classes.

The entire urban and rural population was divided “according to the difference in rights of state” into four main categories: nobility, clergy, urban and rural inhabitants.

The nobility remained the privileged class. It shared into personal and hereditary.

Right to personal nobility, which was not inherited, received representatives of various classes, consisting of public service and having the lowest rank in the Table of Ranks. By serving the Fatherland, one could receive hereditary, i.e., inherited, nobility. To do this, one had to receive a certain rank or award. The emperor could grant hereditary nobility for successful entrepreneurial or other activities.

City dwellers- hereditary honorary citizens, merchants, townspeople, artisans.

Rural inhabitants, Cossacks and other people engaged in agriculture.

The country was in the process of forming a bourgeois society with its two the main classes - the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. At the same time, the predominance of semi-feudal agriculture in the Russian economy contributed to the preservation and two main classes of feudal society - landowners and peasants.

The growth of cities, the development of industry, transport and communications, and the increase in the cultural needs of the population lead to the second half of the 19th century. to increase the proportion of people professionally engaged mental labor and artistic creativity, - intelligentsia: engineers, teachers, doctors, lawyers, journalists, etc.

Peasantry.

The peasants are still constituted the vast majority population of the Russian Empire. Peasants, both former serfs and state-owned ones, were part of self-governing rural societies - communities Several rural societies made up the volost.

Community members were connected mutual guarantee in paying taxes and fulfilling duties. Therefore, there was a dependence of the peasants on the community, manifested primarily in the restriction of freedom of movement.

For the peasants there was special volost court, whose members were also elected by the village assembly. At the same time, the volost courts made their decisions not only on the basis of legal norms, but also guided by customs. Often these courts punished peasants for such offenses as wasting money, drunkenness, and even witchcraft. In addition, peasants were subject to certain punishments that had long been abolished for other classes. For example, volost courts had the right to sentence members of their class who had not reached 60 years of age to flogging.

Russian peasants revered their elders, viewing them as bearers of experience and traditions. This attitude extended to the emperor and served as a source of monarchism, faith in the “tsar-father” - an intercessor, guardian of truth and justice.

Russian peasants professed Orthodoxy. Unusually severe natural conditions and the hard work associated with them - suffering, the results of which did not always correspond to the efforts expended, the bitter experience of lean years immersed the peasants in the world of superstitions, signs and rituals.

Liberation from serfdom brought to the village big changes:

• P First of all, the stratification of the peasants intensified. The horseless peasant (if he was not engaged in other non-agricultural work) became a symbol of rural poverty. At the end of the 80s. in European Russia, 27% of households were horseless. Having one horse was considered a sign of poverty. There were about 29% of such farms. At the same time, from 5 to 25% of owners had up to ten horses. They bought large land holdings, hired farm laborers and expanded their farms.

• a sharp increase in the need for money. The peasants had to pay redemption payments and a poll tax, have funds for zemstvo and worldly fees, for rental payments for land and to repay bank loans. The majority was involved peasant farms into market relations. The main source of peasant income was the sale of bread. But due to low yields, peasants were often forced to sell grain to the detriment of their own interests. The export of grain abroad was based on the malnutrition of the village residents and was rightly called by contemporaries “hungry export.”

• Poverty, hardships associated with redemption payments, lack of land and other troubles firmly tied the bulk of the peasants to the community. After all, it guaranteed its members mutual support. In addition, the distribution of land in the community helped the middle and poorest peasants to survive in case of famine. Allotments were distributed among community members interstriped, and were not brought together in one place. Each community member had a small plot (strip) in different places. In a dry year, a plot located in a lowland could produce a quite bearable harvest; in rainy years, a plot on a hillock helped out.

There were peasants committed to the traditions of their fathers and grandfathers, to the community with its collectivism and security, and there were also “new” peasants who wanted to farm independently at their own risk. Many peasants went to work in the cities. Long-term isolation of men from family, from village life and rural work led to a strengthening of the role of women not only in economic life, but also in peasant self-government.

The most important problem of Russia on the eve of the 20th century. was to turn the peasants - the bulk of the country's population - into politically mature citizens, respecting both their own and others' rights and capable of active participation in public life.

Nobility.

After the peasant reforms In 1861, the stratification of the nobility was rapidly progressing due to the active influx of people from other segments of the population into the privileged class.

Gradually, the most privileged class lost its economic advantages. After the peasant reform of 1861, the area of ​​land owned by the nobles decreased by an average of 0.68 million dessiatinas 8* per year. The number of landowners among the nobles was declining. Moreover, almost half of the landowners had estates that were considered small. In the post-reform period, most of the landowners continued to use semi-feudal forms of farming and went bankrupt.

Simultaneously some of the nobles widely participated in entrepreneurial activity: in railway construction, industry, banking and insurance. Funds for business were received from the redemption under the reform of 1861, from the leasing of land and on collateral. Some nobles became owners of large industrial enterprises, took prominent positions in companies, and became owners of shares and real estate. A significant part of the nobles joined the ranks of owners of small commercial and industrial establishments. Many acquired the profession of doctors, lawyers, and became writers, artists, and performers. At the same time, some of the nobles went bankrupt, joining the lower strata of society.

Thus, the decline of the landowner economy accelerated the stratification of the nobility and weakened the influence of the landowners in the state. In the second half of the 19th century. the nobles lost their dominant position in life Russian society: political power concentrated in the hands of officials, the economic one - in the hands of the bourgeoisie, the intelligentsia became the ruler of thoughts, and the class of once all-powerful landowners gradually disappeared.

Bourgeoisie.

The development of capitalism in Russia led to the growth of the bourgeoisie. Continuing to be officially listed as nobles, merchants, bourgeois, and peasants, representatives of this class played an increasingly important role in the life of the country. Since the time of the “railway fever” of the 60s and 70s. The bourgeoisie was actively replenished at the expense of officials. By serving on the boards of private banks and industrial enterprises, officials provided a link between state power and private production. They helped industrialists obtain lucrative orders and concessions.

The period of the formation of the Russian bourgeoisie coincided with the active activity of the populists within the country and with the growth of the revolutionary struggle of the Western European proletariat. Therefore, the bourgeoisie in Russia looked at the autocratic government as its protector from revolutionary uprisings.

And although the interests of the bourgeoisie were often infringed by the state, active actions she did not dare against the autocracy.

Some of the founders of famous commercial and industrial families - S.V. Morozov, P.K. Konovalov - remained illiterate until the end of their days. But they tried to give their children a good education, including university ones. Sons were often sent abroad to study commercial and industrial practices.

Many representatives of this new generation of the bourgeoisie sought to support scientists and representatives of the creative intelligentsia, and invested money in the creation of libraries and art galleries. Significant role A. A. Korzinkin, K. T. Soldatenkov, P. K. Botkin and D. P. Botkin, S. M. Tretyakov and P. M. Tretyakov, S. I. Mamontov played a role in expanding charity and patronage of the arts.

Proletariat.

One more main class industrial society was the proletariat. The proletariat included all hired workers, including those employed in agriculture and industries, but its core was factory, mining and railway workers - the industrial proletariat. His education took place simultaneously with the industrial revolution. By the mid-90s. XIX century About 10 million people were employed in the wage labor sector, of which 1.5 million were industrial workers.

The working class of Russia had a number of features:

• He was closely connected with the peasantry. A significant part of the factories and factories were located in villages, and the industrial proletariat itself was constantly replenished with people from the village. A hired factory worker was, as a rule, a first-generation proletarian and maintained a close connection with the village.
• Representatives became workers different nationalities.
• In Russia there was a significantly greater concentration proletariat in large enterprises than in other countries.

Life of workers.

In factory barracks (dormitories), they settled not according to the workshops, but according to the provinces and districts from which they came. The workers from one locality were headed by a master, who recruited them to the enterprise. Workers had difficulty getting used to urban conditions. Separation from home often led to a drop in moral level and drunkenness. The workers worked long hours and, in order to send money home, huddled in damp and dark rooms and ate poorly.

Workers' speeches for improving their situation in the 80-90s. became more numerous, sometimes they took sharp forms, accompanied by violence against the factory management, the destruction of factory premises and clashes with the police and even with the troops. The largest strike was that broke out on January 7, 1885 at Morozov’s Nikolskaya manufactory in the city of Orekhovo-Zuevo.

The labor movement during this period was a response to concrete actions“their” manufacturers: increased fines, reduced prices, forced payment of wages in goods from the factory store, etc.

Clergy.

Church ministers - the clergy - constituted a special class, divided into black and white clergy. The black clergy - monks - took on special obligations, including leaving the "world". The monks lived in numerous monasteries.

The white clergy lived in the “world”; their main task was to perform worship and religious preaching. From the end of the 17th century. a procedure was established according to which the place of a deceased priest was inherited, as a rule, by his son or another relative. This contributed to the transformation of the white clergy into a closed class.

Although the clergy in Russia belonged to a privileged part of society, rural priests, who made up the vast majority of it, eked out a miserable existence, as they fed on their own labor and at the expense of parishioners, who themselves often barely made ends meet. In addition, as a rule, they were burdened with large families.

The Orthodox Church had its own educational institutions. IN late XIX V. in Russia there were 4 theological academies, in which about a thousand people studied, and 58 seminaries, training up to 19 thousand future clergy.

Intelligentsia.

At the end of the 19th century. Of the more than 125 million inhabitants of Russia, 870 thousand could be classified as intelligentsia. The country had over 3 thousand scientists and writers, 4 thousand engineers and technicians, 79.5 thousand teachers and 68 thousand private teachers, 18.8 thousand doctors, 18 thousand artists, musicians and actors.

In the first half of the 19th century. The ranks of the intelligentsia were replenished mainly at the expense of the nobles.

Some of the intelligentsia were never able to find practical application for their knowledge. Neither industry, nor zemstvos, nor other institutions could provide employment for many university graduates whose families experienced financial difficulties. Receipt higher education was not a guarantee of an increase in living standards, and therefore social status. This gave rise to a mood of protest.

But besides material reward for their work, the most important need of the intelligentsia is freedom of expression, without which true creativity is unthinkable. Therefore, in the absence of political freedoms in the country, the anti-government sentiments of a significant part of the intelligentsia intensified.

Cossacks.

The emergence of the Cossacks was associated with the need to develop and protect the newly acquired outlying lands. For their service, the Cossacks received land from the government. Therefore, a Cossack is both a warrior and a peasant.

At the end of the 19th century. there were 11 Cossack troops

In villages and villages there were special primary and secondary Cossack schools, where much attention was paid military training students.

In 1869, the nature of land ownership in the Cossack regions was finally determined. Communal ownership of stanitsa lands was consolidated, of which each Cossack received a share of 30 dessiatines. The remaining lands constituted military reserves. It was intended mainly to create new village sites as the Cossack population grew. Forests, pastures, and reservoirs were in public use.

Conclusion:

In the second half of the 19th century. there was a breakdown of class barriers and the formation of new groups of society along economic and class lines. The new entrepreneurial class - the bourgeoisie - includes representatives of the merchant class, successful peasant entrepreneurs, and the nobility. The class of hired workers - the proletariat - is replenished primarily at the expense of peasants, but a tradesman, the son of a village priest, and even a “noble gentleman” were not uncommon in this environment. There is a significant democratization of the intelligentsia, even the clergy is losing its former isolation. And only the Cossacks remain to a greater extent adherents to their former way of life.

Based on the above grounds (income, power, education, prestige), an arbitrary number of layers can be distinguished. The number of allocated layers is determined, first of all, by the tasks that the researcher sets for himself and the specific techniques with which he operates. When developing the most general idea of ​​the social hierarchy of society, it is enough to distinguish three main social layers: the highest, middle and lowest. Distribution of the population among these levels is possible based on all stratification grounds, and the significance of each of them will be determined by the prevailing values ​​and norms in society, social institutions and ideological attitudes.

To the highest layer(approximately 10% of the total social composition of society) include persons occupying the highest positions according to the criteria of wealth, power, prestige, and education. These are influential politicians, bankers, managers of leading companies, prominent representatives of the scientific and creative intelligentsia. The upper layer plays a large role in developing the main directions for the development of society, determining social priorities, and in the development of values ​​and norms, but another layer, the middle layer, acts as the guarantor of the stability of society.

To the middle layer(approximately 60-80% of the total social composition of society) include medium and small entrepreneurs, managers, doctors, lawyers, highly qualified workers, lower management personnel, farmers and some other categories. It is characterized by economic independence, the average level of income for a given society and high level education. The political ideals and values ​​of representatives of the middle class are determined, as a rule, by democratic principles and a focus on prestige labor activity, law-abidingness and demands on the state to protect laws and human rights. Stable development and confidence in the future are beneficial to the middle stratum, since they allow them to realize their life plans, so they defend these social priorities. In terms of its status position, the middle layer seems to smooth out the contradictions of the extreme (higher and lower) layers and soften the social situation.

To the lowest layer include persons with low incomes and employed primarily in unskilled labor, as well as various declassed elements (unemployed, vagabonds, etc.).

P. Sorokin considered the fact that a poor person (family) spends almost all of his income on food as a sign of poverty. The rich spend only 5-7% of their income on food. Therefore, it is customary to distinguish between absolute and relative poverty. Absolute poverty is a state where an individual is unable to satisfy even basic needs with his income. Relative poverty is an indicator of how much one individual is poorer than another, the inability to maintain the standard of living accepted in a given society.

Ideas about the scale of poverty also differ depending on the level of well-being of society. Evidence of this is the content of the “consumer basket” - a conditional set of food products that corresponds to the minimum wage. For example, in Russia it includes 11 types of food products: flour, salt, sugar, bread, milk, pasta, meat (fish), eggs, butter, vegetables, tea. For comparison: in Sweden this list contains 113 items and is supplemented by such “unnecessary” products for us as strawberries, champignons, chocolate, dessert wine, cocoa, raspberries and another 107 items.

However, poverty is not only low income, but a special way of life, norms of behavior and psychology, passed on from generation to generation. Poverty begets poverty. How more numbers this layer, the less stable the situation in society. An increase in the lower social stratum results in a decrease in the level of culture and loss of standards for society professional activity, and ultimately - degradation.

Levels of stratification give an idea of ​​the vertical cross-section of society. A vertical slice of society that reproduces its hierarchical structure is called stratification profile, which shows what part of the population belongs to the lower, middle and upper strata and, therefore, what is the level of inequality in a given society.

In a stable, economically developed society, the stratification profile has the shape of a rhombus and the following proportions: most makes up the middle layer (up to 80%), and the highest and lowest balance each other in numbers (5-10%). In a crisis, unstable society, the stratification profile has the shape of a pyramid, the heaviest, most massive part of which is the lowest layer. The more numerous it is, the more complex the socio-economic situation in society. For example, after the economic crisis of 1998, in Russia the poor were 70%, the middle class was 25%, and the rich were 5%.

Social mobility.

Inviolability hierarchical structure society does not mean that there is no movement within it. Social structure is characterized by mobility, variability, and mobility.

Social mobility– a set of movements of individuals in social space, accompanied by changes in their statuses.

The Russian-American sociologist P. Sorokin made a great contribution to the creation of the concept of “social mobility”. It was he who introduced the concept of “social mobility” into scientific circulation, by which he meant any movement of individuals or groups in society between different status positions and in the system of social stratification.

Based on the directions of social movements, a distinction is made between vertical and horizontal mobility. Vertical mobility always associated with an increase or decrease in social status. At the same time, the transition to a higher social position is called upward mobility (promotion), and to a lower one - downward mobility (demotion). It has been noted that upward mobility is performed by individuals voluntarily and with great pleasure, while downward mobility is forced.

Horizontal mobility involves social movement not associated with a change in social status, i.e. from one social group to another, located on the same level. For example, the transition from Orthodoxy to Protestantism, from one family (parental) to another (one’s own), changing one citizenship to another. Such movements, as a rule, do not change anything in the status position of the individual.

One can also distinguish between intergenerational and intragenerational mobility. The first demonstrates the change in the status of children compared to their parents. For example, children can, under the influence of various social factors, achieve a higher social position or, conversely, sink to a lower level than their parents. Intragenerational mobility occurs where the same individual, apart from comparison with his parents, changes social positions several times throughout his life. This mobility is called a social career.

A type of horizontal mobility is geographic mobility - moving in physical space from one place to another while maintaining the same status (for example, international tourism, moving from a city to a village, transferring from one place to another) educational institution to another). If a change of location is added to a change of status, then geographic mobility turns into migration.

As P. Sorokin showed, vertical social mobility exists in almost all types of societies. However, moving from one social stratum to another always requires some effort. The parameters of vertical social mobility depend on the specific historical situation in society, i.e. change in space and time. For quantification social mobility usually uses indicators of its speed and intensity. P. Sorokin defined the speed of social mobility as the vertical social distance that an individual travels up or down in a certain period of time.

Modern society will differ high performance social mobility, which is associated with the needs of socio-economic, scientific and technical development, with the need for an influx of highly educated specialists into key social positions. Opportunities for social mobility depend both on society and its social organization, and on the individual. Ways to overcome barriers in the process of socialization are called channels of social mobility. The main ones: education, advanced training, political career, change in social environment, marriage, etc.

Using channels suitable for a particular society, an individual has the opportunity to increase his social status. In history, there have never been absolutely closed societies, nor those in which vertical social mobility would have been absolutely free, and the transition from one social stratum to another would have been carried out without any resistance. If mobility were absolutely free, then society would not be able to form stable strata.

Thus, within the strata there is a kind of “sieve” that sifts individuals, allowing some to rise and leaving others in the lower strata. This role is performed social institutions, applying their selection mechanisms. Such an “elevator” is not ready to deliver every “passenger” to their address. However, rising to a higher social stratum can be easier than gaining a foothold in it. To gain a foothold in a new stratum, it is necessary to accept its way of life, organically fit into its sociocultural environment, and build your behavior in accordance with accepted norms and rules. This process is quite painful, since a person is often forced to reconsider his value system and, at first, control his every action. Adaptation to a new sociocultural environment requires high psychological stress, which is fraught nervous breakdowns. A person may find himself an outcast in the social stratum to which he aspired or in which he found himself by the will of fate, if we're talking about about downward movement.

This phenomenon of a person being, as it were, between two cultures, associated with his movement in social space, is called in sociology marginality. A marginal is an individual who has lost his usual social status, is deprived of the opportunity to engage in his usual type of activity, and, moreover, has found himself unable to adapt to the new socio-cultural environment of the stratum within which he formally exists. Marginality is an inevitable accompaniment of social mobility. Every person has become marginalized at least once in their life, and many find themselves in this state quite often. With mass migration, marginal groups are formed (unemployed, homeless, beggars, refugees). Marginalized groups create their own subculture and begin to reproduce themselves. They can pose a serious danger to society if they grow in numbers, since they are often hostile to the basic values ​​of a given society.

Currently, throughout the world and in Russia, in particular, this type of social mobility as migration has acquired significant proportions - the process of moving people associated with a change in place of residence. There are three main factors contributing to this process: pushing, attraction, migration channels:

· pushing out is caused by difficult conditions of existence of an individual in his native place (wars and ethnic conflicts, economic crises, etc.);

· attraction is a set of attractive aspects or better conditions for living in other places;

· migration channels – transport capabilities, information awareness, language barrier, obtaining permission to leave, etc.

Migration is divided into irrevocable, temporary, seasonal (at certain times of the year), and pendulum (regular trips, for example, from one’s native place to other places to earn money). There is also a distinction between external migration (moving from one country to another) and internal migration (within one country). Up to certain limits, all types of migration are considered natural and normal. However, excess migration can lead to a change in the demographic composition of the region (for example, the departure of young people, “aging of the population,” a drop in the birth rate, etc.), a shortage or excess of labor, and many other consequences. Therefore, migration must be regulated by the state.

Control questions:

1.What is inequality and what are the reasons for its occurrence?

2. What is the social meaning of inequality?

3. What are Negative consequences inequality?

4. How are inequality and stratification related?

5. What bases of social stratification do you know?

6. What stratification criteria do you know?

7. Describe the main social strata.

8. What is the role of the middle social stratum in the life of society?

9. What is social mobility? What types of mobility do you know?

10. What is a “marginal personality”?

11. What channels can you use to increase your social status in society?

12. What are social consequences migration?

Literature:

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Key concepts:

a. social inequality

b. social stratification

c. social structure

f. estate

g. stratification profile

h. stratification criteria

i. social mobility

j. vertical mobility

k. horizontal mobility

l. marginality

m. migration

n. social mobility channels

o. group mobility

p. individual mobility