Psychology Rubinstein read online. Fundamentals of general psychology - Rubinstein S.L.
S.L.Rubinshtein
FUNDAMENTALS OF GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY
St. Petersburg: Publishing house "Piter", 2000
annotation
From the compilers
Preface to the first edition
PART ONE
Chapter I
SUBJECT OF PSYCHOLOGY
Nature of the psyche
Psyche and consciousness
Psyche and activity
Psychophysical problem
The subject and tasks of psychology as a science
Chapter II
METHODS OF PSYCHOLOGY
Technique and methodology
Methods of psychology
Observation
Introspection
Objective observation
Experimental method
Chapter III
HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY
History of the development of Western psychology
Psychology in the XVII-XVIII centuries. and the first half of the 19th century.
Formation of psychology as an experimental science
A crisis methodological foundations psychology
History of the development of psychology in the USSR
History of Russian scientific psychology
Soviet psychology
PART TWO
Chapter IV
THE PROBLEM OF DEVELOPMENT IN PSYCHOLOGY
Introduction
Development of psyche and behavior
The main stages of development of behavior and psyche; problem of instinct, skill and intelligence
Instincts
Individually variable forms of behavior
Intelligence
General conclusions
Chapter V
DEVELOPMENT OF BEHAVIOR AND PSYCHE OF ANIMALS
Behavior lower organisms
Development nervous system in animals
Lifestyle and psyche
Chapter VI
HUMAN CONSCIOUSNESS
Historical development of consciousness in humans
The problem of anthropogenesis
Consciousness and brain
Development of consciousness
Development of consciousness in a child
Development and training
Development of a child's consciousness
PART THREE
Introduction
Chapter VII
SENSATION AND PERCEPTION
Feeling
Receptors
Elements of psychophysics
Classification of sensations
Organic sensations
Static sensations
Kinesthetic sensations
Skin sensitivity
Touch
Olfactory sensations
Auditory sensations*
Sound localization
Hearing theory
Perception of speech and music
Visual sensations
Feeling of color
Mixing colors
Psychophysiological patterns
Theory of color perception
Psychophysical effect of flowers
Color perception
Perception
The nature of perception
Constancy of perception
Meaningfulness of perception
Historicity of perception
Personality perception and orientation
Perception of space
Perception of magnitude
Shape perception
Motion perception
Perception of time
Chapter VIII
MEMORY
Memory and perception
Organic foundations of memory
Representation
Performance associations
Memory theory
The role of attitudes in memorization
Memorization
Recognition
Playback
Reconstruction in playback
Memory
Saving and Forgetting
Reminiscence in preservation
Types of memory
Memory levels
Memory types
Chapter IX
IMAGINATION
The Nature of Imagination
Types of imagination
Imagination and creativity
"Technique" of imagination
Imagination and personality
Chapter X
THINKING
The nature of thinking
Psychology and logic
Psychological theories of thinking
Psychological nature of the thought process
Main phases of the thought process
Basic operations as aspects of mental activity
Concept and presentation
Inference
Basic types of thinking
About the genetically early stages of thinking
Development of a child's thinking
The first manifestations of a child’s intellectual activity
The child's first generalizations
"Situational" thinking of a child
The beginning of the child’s active mental activity
Generalizations in a preschooler and his understanding of relationships
The child’s inferences and understanding of causality
Distinctive features early forms of children's thinking
Development of a child’s thinking in the process of systematic learning
Concept Mastery
Judgments and inferences
Development of theoretical thinking in the process of mastering a knowledge system
Theory of development of a child's thinking
Chapter XI
SPEECH
Speech and communication. Functions of speech
Different kinds speeches
Speech and thinking
Speech development in children
The emergence and first stages of child speech development
Speech structure
Development of coherent speech
The problem of egocentric speech
Development of written speech in a child
Development expressive speech
Chapter XII
ATTENTION
Introduction
Attention theory
Physiological basis of attention
Main types of attention
Basic properties of attention
Development of attention
PART FOUR
Introduction
Chapter XIII
ACTION
Introduction
Various types of action
Action and movement
Action and skill
Chapter XIV
ACTIVITY
Objectives and motives of activity
Work
Psychological characteristics of work
The work of an inventor
The work of a scientist
Artist's work
A game
Nature of the game
Game theories
Development of child's games
Teaching
The nature of learning and work
Learning and knowledge
Education and development
Motives of the teaching
Mastering the knowledge system
PART FIVE
Introduction
Chapter XV
ORIENTATION OF PERSONALITY
Attitudes and trends
Needs
Interests
Ideals
Chapter XVI
CAPABILITIES
Introduction
General talent and special abilities
Giftedness and ability level
Theories of giftedness
Development of abilities in children
Chapter XVII
EMOTIONS
Emotions and needs
Emotions and lifestyle
Emotions and activity
Expressive movements
Emotions and experiences of the individual
"Associative" experiment
Types of emotional experiences
Emotional personality traits
Chapter XVIII
WILL
The Nature of Will
Volitional process
Pathology and psychology of will
Volitional personality traits
Chapter XIX
TEMPERAMENT AND CHARACTER
Doctrine of Temperament
Teaching about character
Chapter XX
SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS OF A PERSON AND HIS LIFE PATH
Personal self-awareness
Personal life path
Afterword
Historical context and modern sound
fundamental work of S.L. Rubinstein
annotation
The classic work of Sergei Leonidovich Rubinstein "Fundamentals general psychology"is one of the most significant achievements of Russian psychological science. Latitude theoretical generalizations combined with an encyclopedic coverage of historical and experimental material, the impeccable clarity of methodological principles made “Fundamentals...” a reference book for several generations of psychologists, educators, and philosophers. Despite the fact that more than half a century has passed since its first publication, it remains one of the best textbooks on general psychology and fully retains its scientific relevance.
From the compilers
The edition of “Fundamentals of General Psychology” by S.L. Rubinstein that is brought to the attention of the reader is the fourth in a row. It was prepared by students of S.L. Rubinstein based on the publication of this book in 1946 and the works of S.L. Rubinstein in the 50s, i.e. works of the last decade of his life.
The first edition of "Fundamentals of General Psychology" (1940) was awarded State Prize and received high marks in reviews by B.G. Ananyev, B.M. Teplov, L.M. Ukhtomsky, V.I. Vernadsky and others. The second edition (1946) was repeatedly discussed by Soviet psychologists, who gave both positive and critical assessments, but the latter never touched on the principles of S.L. Rubinstein’s concept. The heated nature of the discussions of this book, especially in the late 40s, was a reflection of the general negative situation in science of those years, which is discussed in detail in the “Afterword” to this publication.
The enduring value of S.L. Rubinstein’s book is not so much its encyclopedic nature (after all, a summary of the main psychological knowledge sooner or later becomes outdated and begins to be of purely historical interest) as the system of psychological science proposed in it at a certain stage of its development. This book presents a holistic system of new psychology, including both basic methodological principles and special way construction of this science. In addition, the book takes into account the achievements of world psychology and reflects a significant period in the development of Soviet science, when leading psychologists of our country, such as S.L. Rubinstein himself, B.M. Teplov, A.N. Leontiev and others, worked together on key problems of psychological knowledge, for example, problems of activity. The book also summarized experimental studies based on the principle of the unity of consciousness and activity.
Thus, the need for a new edition of the book is determined primarily by its scientific relevance, but the fact that it has long become a bibliographic rarity and is in constant high demand among readers also prompted its republication.
In preparing this publication, its compilers proceeded from following principles: 1) to focus the reader’s attention on the conceptual constructions of S.L. Rubinstein, 2) to trace the development of his theoretical positions in works written after 1946. In connection with this, almost the entire book was shortened ontogenetic material - sections on the development of certain psychological functions, processes in a child (although in Soviet psychology research in the field of child psychology was significant at that time, in this edition, compared to the previous one, this area of research is presented less fully). In addition, sections on the history of psychology were excluded ancient world, the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, on the pathology of memory, as well as factual data provided by the author to complete the presentation of the topic, since previous editions of this book were published as tutorial. The sections on cognitive processes (part three) were significantly shortened; the chapters on emotions and will were moved from part three to part five.
At the same time, sections on the subject of psychology, consciousness, thinking, abilities, personality, etc. were supplemented with fragments from S.L. Rubinstein’s later works. This addition to the text will allow the reader to see the internal unity and continuity in the development of the basic methodological principles of S.L. Rubinstein’s concept , to restore those relationships that sometimes seemed broken due to S.L. Rubinstein’s improvement and clarification of the provisions of his concept at subsequent stages of its development. The compilers also sought to ensure that the editorial changes made did not in any way affect the authenticity of the author's ideas and style. All reductions made are marked with<...>, introduction additional materials covered by the appropriate headings.
We hope that the republished monograph by S.L. Rubinstein will serve the cause further development Russian psychological science, the formation of which was largely determined by the work of this prominent scientist.
K.A. Abulkhanova-Slavskaya,
A.V.Brushlinsky
Preface to the second edition
In the second edition of this book, I made minor corrections and additions aimed only at the clearest and most consistent implementation of its original principles.
Preparations for printing this publication took place during the Great Patriotic War. All forces and thoughts were then concentrated on the war, on the outcome of which the fate of mankind depended. In this war, our Red Army defended the best ideals of all advanced humanity from barbarism, the most disgusting of which the world has never seen. Majdanek, Buchenwald, Auschwitz and other “death camps” that have now appeared before the eyes of mankind will forever remain in memory not only as places of inhuman suffering of people tortured by fascist executioners, but also as monuments of such a fall, such degradation of man, which could not even be imagined even the most perverted imagination.
This book is published in the unforgettable days of the victorious end of the Great Patriotic War, the war of all freedom-loving peoples against fascism. Our just cause has won. And now, in the light of everything that has happened and experienced, with new significance, as if in a new relief, the large, fundamental worldview problems of philosophical and psychological thought appear before us. With new urgency and significance the question arises about man, about the motives of his behavior and the tasks of his activity, about his consciousness - not only theoretical, but also practical, moral - in its unity with activity, during which a person not only learns, but also transforms world. We must tackle them with new strength and new perspectives. From a person - now this is more obvious than ever - it is required that he not only be able to find all sorts of, the most inventive means for any tasks and goals, but also be able, first of all, to properly determine the goals and tasks truly human life and activities.
Institute of Philosophy of the USSR Academy of Sciences,
S. Rubinstein
20/V 1945, Moscow
Preface to the first edition
This book grew out of work on the proposed second edition of my “Fundamentals of Psychology”, published in 1935. But in essence - both in subject matter and in a number of its main tendencies - it is A new book. Between her and her predecessor lies a long way, covered over the years by Soviet psychology in general and by me in particular.
My 1935 Principles of Psychology was—I am the first to emphasize this—permeated with contemplative intellectualism and in the thrall of traditional abstract functionalism. In this book, I began a decisive demolition of a number of outdated norms of psychology, and above all those that dominated my own work.
Three problems seem to me to be particularly relevant for psychology at this stage, and correct positioning, if not their solution, is especially significant for advanced psychological thought:
development of the psyche and, in particular, overcoming the fatalistic view of the development of personality and consciousness, the problem of development and learning;
effectiveness and consciousness: overcoming the passive contemplation dominant in traditional psychology of consciousness and in connection with this
overcoming abstract functionalism and the transition to the study of the psyche, consciousness in concrete activity, in which they not only manifest themselves, but are also formed.
This decisive shift from the study of abstractly taken functions alone to the study of the psyche and consciousness in concrete activity organically brings psychology closer to issues of practice, in particular, child psychology to issues of upbringing and teaching.
It is along the lines of these problems that, first of all, there is a demarcation between everything that is living and advanced in Soviet psychology, and everything that is outdated and dying. Ultimately, the question comes down to one thing: to transform psychology into a concrete, real science that studies human consciousness in the conditions of its activity and, thus, in its most basic positions, is connected with the questions that practice poses - such is the task. This book perhaps poses this problem more than it solves it. But in order for it to ever be resolved, it must be put in place.
This book is to the point (good or bad - let others judge) research, which poses a number of basic problems in a new way. Let me point out, as an example, a new interpretation of the history of psychology, the formulation of the problem of development and psychophysical problems, the interpretation of consciousness, experience and knowledge, a new understanding of functions and - from more specific problems - the solution to the question of the stages of observation, the interpretation of the psychology of memory (in relation with the problem of reconstruction and reminiscence), on the concept of the development of coherent (“contextual”) speech and its place in the general theory of speech, etc. The focus of this book is not on didactic, but on scientific objectives.
At the same time, I especially emphasize one thing: this book bears my name and it contains the work of my thought; but at the same time, it is still collective work in the true sense of the word. It was not composed of a dozen or two dozen authors. The pen was held by one hand, and it was guided by a single thought, but still this is a collective work: a number of its main ideas crystallized as the common property of advanced psychological thought, and all the factual material on which this book is based is already directly the product of collective work - the work of more a narrow team of my closest collaborators and a team of a number of old and young psychologists Soviet Union. In this book, almost every chapter is based on material from Soviet psychological research, including unpublished ones. For the first time, perhaps, the work of Soviet psychologists is widely represented.
Contrary to very common trends of late, I have not tried to avoid any of the pressing issues in this book. Some of them, at this stage of the development of science, cannot yet be fully adequately resolved, and during their very formulation, some errors can easily and even almost inevitably creep in. But staging them is still necessary. Without solving these problems, it is impossible for scientific thought to move forward. If it turns out that I made certain mistakes when posing some of the problems, criticism will soon reveal and correct them. Their very presentation and the discussion that it will cause will still benefit science, and this is the main thing for me.
I highly value the importance of business-like, positive criticism. Therefore, I willingly submit my work to criticism, even the most acute, as long as it is principled, as long as it advances science.
S. Rubinstein,
2/VII 1940, Moscow
PART ONE
Chapter I
SUBJECT OF PSYCHOLOGY
Nature of the psyche
Characteristics of mental phenomena. A specific range of phenomena that psychology studies stand out clearly and clearly - these are our perceptions, thoughts, feelings, our aspirations, intentions, desires, etc. - everything that constitutes the inner content of our life and which seems to be directly given to us as an experience. Indeed, belonging to the individual experiencing them, the subject, is the first characteristic feature of everything mental. Mental phenomena therefore appear as processes and as properties of specific individuals; they usually bear the stamp of something especially close to the subject experiencing them.
There is no doubt that the way something is given to us in direct experience, it cannot be given to us in any other way. From no description, no matter how vivid it may be, a blind person does not recognize the colorfulness of the world, and a deaf person does not recognize the musicality of its sounds as if he directly perceived them; no psychological treatise can replace a person who has not himself experienced love, the passion of struggle and the joy of creativity, what he would experience if he himself experienced them. My experiences are given to me differently, as if from a different perspective, than they are given to others. The experiences, thoughts, feelings of the subject are his thoughts, his feelings, these are his experiences - a piece of his own life, in his flesh and blood.
If belonging to an individual, a subject, is the first essential feature of the psyche, then its relationship to an object independent of the psyche, of consciousness, is another no less essential feature of the psyche. Every mental phenomenon is differentiated from others and defined as such and such an experience due to the fact that it is an experience of such and such; His inner nature is revealed through his relationship to the outside. The psyche, consciousness reflects objective reality, existing outside and independently of it; consciousness is conscious being.
But it would be pointless to talk about reflection if that which is supposed to reflect reality did not itself exist in reality. Every mental fact is both a piece of real reality and a reflection of reality - not either one or the other, but both; The uniqueness of the psyche lies precisely in this, that it is both the real side of existence and its reflection - the unity of the real and the ideal1.
Associated with the double correlation of the mental, inherent in the individual and reflecting the object, is the complex, dual, contradictory internal structure of the mental fact, the presence in it of two aspects: every mental phenomenon is, on the one hand, a product and dependent component of the organic life of the individual and, on the other , a reflection of the outside world around him. These two aspects, presented in one form or another even in very elementary mental formations, are increasingly differentiated and take on specific forms at higher stages of development - in a person, as with the development of social practice he becomes a subject in the true sense of the word, consciously distinguishing oneself from the environment and relating to it.
These two aspects, always presented in human consciousness in unity and interpenetration, appear here as experience and knowledge. The moment of knowledge in consciousness especially emphasizes the attitude towards to the outside world which is reflected in the psyche. This experience is primary, first of all, a mental fact as a piece of an individual’s own life in his flesh and blood, a specific manifestation of his individual life. It becomes an experience in a narrower, more specific sense of the word as the individual becomes a person and his experience acquires a personal character.
Mental formation is an experience because it is determined by the context of an individual’s life. In the consciousness of the experiencing individual, this context acts as a connection of goals and motives. They define the meaning of the experience as something that happened to me. In an experience, what comes to the fore is not the objective content of what is reflected and cognized in it, but its significance in the course of my life - the fact that I knew it, that it became clear to me, that this solved the problems that confronted me, and the difficulties I faced were overcome. Experience is determined by a personal context, just as knowledge (see below) is determined by a subject context; more precisely, it is an experience insofar as it is determined by the former, and knowledge insofar as it is determined by the latter. An experience becomes for a person that which turns out to be personally significant for him.
Related to this is the positive content of the term experience, which is usually included in it when they say that a person has experienced something, that this or that event has become an experience for him. When we say that some mental phenomenon was or became an experience of a person, this means that it, in its own, therefore unique, individuality entered as a defining moment in the individual history of a given person and played some role in it. Experience is therefore not something purely subjective, since, firstly, it is usually an experience of something and since, secondly, its specific personal aspect does not mean its falling out of the objective plane, but its inclusion in a certain an objective plan correlated with the personality as a real subject.
Two mental phenomena can be a reflection of the same external phenomenon or fact. As a reflection of the same thing, they are equivalent, equivalent. They are knowledge or awareness of a given fact. But one of them - for example, the one in which this fact was first realized in all its significance - could, for one reason or another, play a certain role in the individual life of a given person. That special place, which it occupied in the history of the development of a given personality, distinguishes it, gives it uniqueness, making it an experience in a specific, emphasized sense of the word. If we call an event a phenomenon that has occupied a certain place in some historical series and, due to this, has acquired a certain specificity, as if uniqueness and significance, then as an experience in a specific, emphasized sense of the word one can designate a mental phenomenon that has become an event of inner life personality.
Until the end of his days, Descartes remembered the special feeling that gripped him that morning when, lying in bed, he first imagined the basic outlines of the concept he later developed. This was a significant experience in his life. Every person who lives any significant inner life, looking back at his life path, always finds memories of such moments of a particularly intense inner life, illuminated by a particularly bright light, which, in their unique individuality, deeply entering his life, became experiences for him. It is not without reason that artists, when depicting the psychology of their hero, are inclined to highlight his experiences in particular, i.e. especially significant moments of his inner life, characterizing the individual path of his development, like turning points. A person’s experiences are the subjective side of him real life, the subjective aspect of a person’s life path.
Thus, the concept of experience expresses a special specific aspect of consciousness; it may be more or less expressed in it, but it is always present in every real, concrete mental phenomenon; it is always given in interpenetration and unity with another moment - knowledge, especially essential for consciousness.
At the same time, we distinguish experience as a special specific formation. But even in this last case, the experience is the experience of something and, therefore, knowledge about something. It appears as an experience not because the other aspect - knowledge - is completely absent from it, but because the vital or personal aspect is dominant in it. Thus, every experience includes, as something subordinate, an aspect of knowledge. At the same time, knowledge - even the most abstract - can become the deepest personal experience.
In its primary rudimentary form, the moment of knowledge in consciousness lies in every mental phenomenon, since every mental process is a reflection objective reality, but knowledge in the true, specific sense of the word - cognition, an increasingly deeper active cognitive penetration into reality, it becomes only in a person as he begins to change in his social practice and, by changing, to cognize reality more and more deeply. Knowledge is an essential quality of consciousness; It is not without reason that in a number of languages the concept of knowledge is included as a main component in the very term consciousness (con-science). However, consciousness and knowledge are not only one, but also different.
This difference is expressed in two ways: 1) in the consciousness of an individual, knowledge is usually presented in some limitation specific to him, 2) in the consciousness of the individual it is framed and permeated by a number of additional motivational components, from which knowledge, as it is presented in the system of science, is usually abstracted.
In the consciousness of an individual, since he remains within the framework of his individual limitations, knowledge of objective reality often appears in specifically limited, more or less subjective forms, conditioned by their dependence not only on the object, but also on the knowing subject. Knowledge represented in the consciousness of an individual is a unity of objective and subjective.2
The highest levels of objectivity, raising knowledge to the level scientific knowledge, it achieves only as social knowledge, as a system of scientific knowledge developing on the basis of social practice. The development of scientific knowledge is a product of social historical development. Only to the extent that an individual is included in the course of the socio-historical development of scientific knowledge, can he, relying on it, and with his own cognitive scientific activity, advance scientific knowledge to a further, higher level. Thus, individual cognition, as it occurs in the consciousness of the individual, always occurs as a movement starting from the social development of cognition and returning to it again; it flows out of social knowledge and flows back into it. But the process of development of an individual’s knowledge of the world, taking place within the social development of knowledge, is still different from it; thoughts that an individual comes to, even those that, advancing social knowledge to a higher level, pass into the system or history of science itself, in the individual consciousness and in the system of scientific knowledge can sometimes be given in different contexts and therefore partly in different content.
The thoughts of a scientist, thinker, writer have, on the one hand, one or another objective meaning, since they more or less adequately, fully and completely reflect objective reality, and on the other hand, one or another psychological meaning that they acquire for their author depending on on the conditions of their occurrence in the course of his individual history. In some cases, the limited horizons of the author’s personal consciousness, conditioned by the individual course of his development and the historical conditions in which it took place, are such that the fullness of the objective content of thoughts that are captured in his books, works, works are revealed only in the further historical development of scientific knowledge. knowledge. Therefore, the author can sometimes be understood better than he understood himself. For those who then consider the thoughts of an author in connection with the social situation in which they arose, with the objective context of the historical development of scientific knowledge into which they entered, they are revealed in these new connections and in new content. In the system of knowledge, in the historical context of social knowledge, their significance for the knowledge of reality is revealed and their objective content is highlighted; in the individual consciousness, depending on the specific path of development of a given individual, his attitudes, plans, intentions, they are filled with other specific content and acquire a different specific meaning: the same provisions, formulas, etc. have in one and another case the same and not the same meaning, or, while maintaining the same objective objective meaning, they acquire different meanings from different subjects, depending on their motives and goals.
The consciousness of a specific real individual is the unity of experience and knowledge.
In the consciousness of an individual, knowledge is not usually presented in “pure” form, i.e. abstract form, but only as a moment, as a side of diverse effective, motivational, personal moments reflected in experience.
The consciousness of a specific living personality - consciousness in the psychological, and not in the ideological sense of the word - is always, as it were, immersed in a dynamic, not fully conscious experience, which forms a more or less dimly illuminated, changeable, vague in its contours background, from which consciousness emerges, never , however, without looking up from him. Every act of consciousness is accompanied by a more or less echoing resonance which it evokes in less conscious experiences, just as often the more obscure but very intense life of not fully conscious experiences resonates in consciousness.
Every experience is differentiated from others and defined as such and such an experience by virtue of the fact that it is an experience of such and such. His internal nature is revealed in his relation to the external. Awareness of an experience is always a clarification of its objective relationship to the reasons that cause it, to the objects to which it is directed, to the actions by which it can be realized. Awareness of experience, thus, is always and inevitable - not its closure in the inner world, but its correlation with the external, objective world.
In order to become aware of my attraction, I must become aware of the object to which it is directed. A person may experience a vague feeling of unpleasant anxiety, the true nature of which he himself is not aware of. He reveals nervousness; with less attention than usual, he follows the work from time to time, as if not expecting anything in particular, glances at his watch. But now the work is finished. He is called to dinner; he sits down at the table and begins to eat with uncharacteristic haste. An indefinite feeling, about which it is initially difficult to say what it actually is, is first defined from this objective context as the feeling of hunger. The statement that I feel hungry or thirsty is an expression of my experience. No description or indirect characterization of an experience can compare with the experience itself. But defining this experience as the experience of hunger or thirst includes a statement about the state of my body and about those actions by which this state can be eliminated. Without relation to these facts, which lie outside the inner sphere of consciousness, experience cannot be defined; Without relating to these facts it is impossible to determine what we are experiencing. The establishment of “immediate data” of my consciousness presupposes data established by the sciences of the external, objective world, and is mediated by them. A person’s own experience is cognized and realized only through his relationship to the outside world, to an object. The consciousness of the subject is irreducible to bare subjectivity, which opposes everything objective from the outside. Consciousness is the unity of the subjective and objective. From here the true relationship between the conscious and the unconscious becomes clear, resolving the paradox of the unconscious psyche.
It is unlikely that any mental phenomenon in a person can be completely outside of consciousness. However, an unconscious, “unconscious” experience is possible. It is certainly not an experience that we do not experience or that we do not know that we are experiencing; This is an experience in which the object causing it is not conscious. It is not the experience itself that is unconscious, but its connection with what it relates to, or, more precisely, the experience is unconscious because it is not realized what it relates to; Until it is realized what I am experiencing is an experience, I do not know what I am experiencing. A mental phenomenon can be realized by the subject himself only through the medium of what it is an experience of.
A young, nascent feeling is often unconscious, especially in a young, inexperienced being. The lack of awareness of a feeling is explained by the fact that to realize one’s feeling means not just to experience it as an experience, but also to correlate it with the object or person that causes it and to which it is directed. Feeling is based on the relationship of the individual to the world that goes beyond consciousness, which can be realized with varying degrees of completeness and adequacy. Therefore, it is possible to experience a feeling very strongly and not be aware of it - perhaps an unconscious or, rather, an unconscious feeling. An unconscious or unconscious feeling is, of course, not a feeling that has not been experienced or experienced (which would be contradictory and meaningless), but a feeling in which the experience is not related or inadequately related to the objective world. Likewise, mood is often created outside the control of consciousness - unconsciously; but this does not mean, of course, that a person is not aware of what and how he is aware; this only means that a person is often not aware of this particular dependence, and the lack of awareness of his experience lies precisely in the fact that it does not fall into the field of his consciousness. In the same way, when it is said that a person acts unconsciously or that he is unconscious, this means that the person is not aware of his act, but of the consequences that his act should entail, or, more precisely, he is not aware of his act, since he is not aware consequences arising from it; he does not realize what he has done until he has realized what his action means in the real situation in which he performs it. Thus, here, too, the “mechanism” or process of awareness in all these cases is, in principle, the same: awareness is accomplished through the inclusion of the experience of the act or event performed by the subject in the objective objective connections that define it3. But it is quite obvious that the number of these connections is fundamentally infinite; therefore there is no unlimited, exhaustive awareness. Not a single experience appears outside of any connections and not a single one appears in consciousness at once in all its objective connections, in relation to all aspects of existence with which it is objectively connected. Therefore, consciousness, the real consciousness of a specific individual, is never “pure”, i.e. abstract, consciousness; it is always a unity of conscious and unconscious, conscious and unconscious, intertwined and interconnected by many mutual transitions. Since, however, man, as a thinking being, distinguishes essential connections, the leading factor in this unity is his consciousness. The measure of this consciousness still varies. At the same time, the conscious and unconscious differ not in that one lies entirely in the “sphere” of consciousness, and the other completely outside it, and not only in the quantitative measure of the degree of intensity or clarity of awareness. The conscious or unconscious, conscious or unconscious nature of any act is essentially determined by what exactly is realized in it. Thus, I may be completely unaware of the automated way in which I carried out this or that action, that is, the very process of its implementation, and yet no one will call such an action unconscious because of this if the purpose of this action is realized. But an action will be called unconscious if a significant consequence or result of this action was not realized, which under the given circumstances naturally follows from it and which could have been foreseen. When we demand conscious assimilation of knowledge, we do not assume that the knowledge acquired, albeit unconsciously, is outside the consciousness of the individual who has somehow mastered it. The meaning that we put into the concept of consciousness is different: this or that position is learned consciously if it is realized in the system of those connections that make it justified; not consciously, mechanically acquired knowledge is, first of all, knowledge fixed in the consciousness outside of these connections; It is not the position itself that we know that is not realized, but the connections that justify it, or, more precisely: this or that position of knowledge is not realized, or is acquired unconsciously, if the objective connections that make it justified are not realized. Its awareness is accomplished through awareness of the objective context to which it objectively relates. In order to realize, or consciously assimilate, this or that position, it is necessary to realize the connections that justify it. This is the first. And second: when we talk about the conscious assimilation of knowledge, we mean such an assimilation of knowledge in which the result of assimilation is the conscious goal of the individual, in contrast to those cases when the assimilation of knowledge occurs as a result of activity proceeding from extraneous motives, such as then: receiving some kind of reward, etc., so that the acquisition of knowledge, being the result of an individual’s activity, is not recognized by him as its goal. Since this personal-motivational plan does not directly affect the subject-semantic content of knowledge, we can perhaps say that the decisive factor here is how something is realized, although in this case ultimately we're talking about still about what exactly turns out to be conscious.
It is not for nothing that a person who is able to realize the objective, social significance of his goals and motives and is guided by it is called conscious in the specific sense of the word.
We have thus outlined the “mechanism” of awareness. Unconscious attraction becomes conscious when the object to which it is directed is realized. Awareness of attraction thus occurs indirectly through connection with the object of attraction. In the same way, to realize your feeling means not just to experience the excitement associated with it, it is unknown what caused it and what it means, but to correlate it properly with the object or person to which it is directed. Thus, our own experiences are cognized and realized indirectly through their relation to the object. This also explains the fact that introception data (see below) usually remains “subconscious”. But awareness of one content and unawareness of another content usually has one or another motive behind it, and is not explained only by inexperience, ignorance, etc. negative reasons. Lack of awareness (or inadequate awareness) of a particular attraction, feeling, action, etc. usually due to the fact that his awareness is counteracted by dynamic tendencies, forces emanating from what turns out to be significant for the individual, including the norms of ideology and social assessments that guide the individual. The tendencies contained in experiences, depending on what turns out to be significant for the individual, thus control, to one degree or another, the selective process of their awareness.
Psyche and consciousness
The psychic has a twofold form of existence. The first, objective, form of existence of the mental is expressed in life and activity: this is the primary form of its existence. The second, subjective, form of existence of the mental is reflection, introspection, self-awareness, reflection of the mental in itself: this is secondary, genetically more late form appearing in a person. Representatives of introspective psychology, defining the mental as a phenomenon of consciousness, believing that the existence of the mental is exhausted by its givenness to consciousness or representation in it, mistakenly accepted this secondary form of existence or manifestation of the mental as the primary or, rather, the only form of its existence: consciousness was reduced to self-consciousness or derived out of him.
Meanwhile, sensations, perceptions, ideas, which form, as it were, the composition of the psyche, and the corresponding mental processes are not what is primarily realized, but that through which something - an object - is realized. Consciousness does not primarily mean looking inside at sensations, perceptions, etc., but looking with them or through them at the world, at its objective existence, which gives rise to these sensations and perceptions. Specific to consciousness as such, in contrast to the psyche as a whole, is the objective meaning, semantic, semantic content, the bearer of which is psychic formations. The semantic content of consciousness was formed in a person in the process of generating his language and speech; it developed in the process of socio-historical development; the semantic content of consciousness is a social formation. Thus, the individual’s consciousness opens up not only in relation to the objective world, but at the same time in relation to social consciousness. The very connection of consciousness with the objective world, realized by its semantic content, is mediated by its social essence.
Since the psychic, the internal, is determined by its relationship to the external, it is not “pure”, i.e. abstract, immediacy, as it usually appears, but the unity of the immediate and the mediated. Meanwhile, for the idealistic introspective psychology of consciousness, every mental process is what it directly appears to the consciousness of the subject experiencing it; the existence of the psyche is exhaustively determined by its immediate givenness to consciousness; it therefore turns into a purely personal property: each subject is given only the phenomena of his consciousness, and the phenomena of his consciousness are given only to him; they are fundamentally inaccessible to an outside observer; they withdraw into an inner world accessible only to introspection or introspection4; Psychology must therefore study mental phenomena within the limits of the individual consciousness to which they are directly given; essence and phenomenon seem to coincide in the field of psychology, i.e. in fact, in it, the essence seems to be directly reduced to a phenomenon: everything mental is only phenomenal, only a phenomenon of consciousness. Meanwhile, in reality, the existence of the psyche is not at all exhausted by its being given to the consciousness of the subject, reflecting on his experiences. Mental facts are, first of all, the real properties of an individual and the real processes revealed in his activity. The real biological meaning of the emergence and development of the psyche in the process of evolution was precisely that the development of the psyche of animals, due to changes in their relationships with the environment, in turn led to changes in these relationships and their behavior. Development of consciousness in humans during development labor activity was both a consequence and a prerequisite for the development of higher specific human forms activities. The psyche is not an inactive accompanying phenomenon of real processes; she is a real product of evolution; its development introduces real and increasingly significant changes in actual behavior.
If we analyze the traditional psychological concept, then at its core, as its determining position, lies the principle of the immediate givenness of the psyche. This is essentially a radical idealist thesis: everything material, physical, external is given indirectly through the psyche, while the mental experience of the subject is the only, primary, immediate given. The mental as a phenomenon of consciousness is closed in the inner world; it is exhaustively determined by the relationship to oneself, regardless of any mediating relationships to anything external.
Based precisely on this premise, the extreme and, in essence, the only consistent representatives of introspective psychology5 argued that the testimony of consciousness, the data of introspection, is absolutely reliable. This means that there is no authority capable of refuting them, which is true to the same extent as the fact that there is no authority capable of confirming them, since they are not correlated with anything objective, lying outside them. If the mental is pure immediacy, not determined in its own content by objective mediations, then there is generally no objective authority that could verify the testimony of consciousness; the possibility of verification, which distinguishes knowledge from faith, disappears in psychology; it is just as impossible for the subject himself as for an outside observer, thereby making psychology impossible as objective knowledge, as a science. And yet, this concept of the psyche, which essentially excludes the possibility of objective psychological knowledge, determined everything, including those sharply hostile to introspective psychology, psychological systems. In their struggle against consciousness, representatives of behavioral science - American and Russian - have always proceeded from the understanding of it that was established by introspectionists. Instead of overcoming the introspectionist concept of consciousness in order to implement objectivism in psychology, behaviorism rejected consciousness, because the concept of consciousness that it found in finished form from its opponents, it accepted it as something immutable, as something that can either be taken or rejected, but not changed.
The traditional idealistic concept, which has dominated psychology for centuries, can be reduced to several basic principles:
The psychic is determined solely by its belonging to the subject. Descartes' "cogito, ergo sum" ("I think, therefore I exist") says that even thinking refers only to the thinking subject, without regard to the object that is cognized by him. This position remains unchanged for all traditional psychology. For her, the psychic is primarily a manifestation of the subject. This first position is inextricably linked with the second.
The entire objective material world is given indirectly through the psyche in the phenomena of consciousness. But the psychic is an immediate given; his being is exhausted by his being given to consciousness. Direct experience is the subject of psychology for both Descartes and Locke - despite all the differences in other respects. philosophical views; both for Wundt and for modern Gestalt psychologists.
As a result, consciousness turns into a more or less closed inner world of experience or inner experience, which is revealed only in introspection, or introspection.
We contrast these provisions with the traditional idealistic concept of consciousness with others in which our concept can be summarized.
Consciousness is specific form reflection of objective reality that exists outside and independently of it, therefore a mental fact is not uniquely determined by its relationship to the subject whose experience it is. It presupposes a relationship to the object that is reflected in it. Being the expression of the subject and the reflection of the object, consciousness is the unity of experience and knowledge.
Mental experience is a direct given, but it is cognized and realized indirectly through its relationship to the object. A mental fact is the unity of the immediate and the indirect.
The mental is not reducible to the mere “phenomenon of consciousness”, to its reflection in itself. Human consciousness is not a closed inner world. In its own internal content, it is determined by its relationship to the objective world. The consciousness of the subject is irreducible to pure, i.e. abstract, subjectivity, opposing everything objective from the outside. Consciousness is conscious being, the unity of the subjective and objective.
In radical contradiction with all idealistic psychology coming from Descartes, which recognized the phenomena of consciousness as an immediate given, the central position in psychology should be recognized as the position that the mental is included in connections that go beyond inner world consciousness is mediated by relations to the external, objective world and can only be determined on the basis of these relations. Consciousness is always a conscious being. The consciousness of an object is determined through its relationship to the object of consciousness. It is formed in the process of social practice. The mediation of consciousness by an object is a real dialectic of the historical development of man. In the products of human—essentially social—activity, consciousness not only manifests itself, but through them it is formed.
(2nd ed., 1946)
A critical summary of the achievements of Soviet and world psychological science in the mid-20th century is presented. This book is one of the main textbooks on general psychology in Russia, which has remained so for more than half a century. This is the last “author’s” edition of this textbook; subsequent editions (3rd 1989, 4th 1998), - edited by students of S. L. Rubinstein - are, although partially supplemented by his later works and comments by the compilers, but significantly abridged (and some changes to the original text are not marked) and are not positioned as full-fledged textbooks on general psychology. The book is intended for teachers and graduate students of psychology and pedagogy, as well as students of higher pedagogical educational institutions and universities.
Preface to the 1st edition.
This book grew out of work on the proposed 2nd edition of my “Fundamentals of Psychology”, published in 1935. But in essence - both in subject matter and in a number of its main tendencies - this is a new book. Between her and her predecessor lies a long way, covered over the years by Soviet psychology in general and by me in particular.
My "Fundamentals of Psychology" of 1935 were - I I emphasize this first - they were permeated with contemplative intellectualism and were captive of traditional abstract functionalism. In this book, I began to decisively break down a number of outdated norms of traditional psychology and, above all, those that dominated my own work.
Three problems seem to me to be especially relevant for psychology at this stage, and their correct formulation, if not solution, is especially important for advanced psychological thought:
1) the problem of mental development and, in particular, overcoming the fatalistic view of the development of personality and consciousness, the problem of development and learning;
2) the problem of effectiveness and consciousness; overcoming the passive contemplation dominant in traditional psychology of consciousness and in connection with this
3) overcoming abstract functionalism and the transition to the study of the psyche, consciousness in concrete activity, in which they not only manifest themselves, but are also formed.
This decisive shift from the study of abstractly taken functions alone to the study of the psyche and consciousness in concrete activity organically brings psychology closer to specific issues of practice, in particular the psychology of the child, to issues of upbringing and teaching.
It is along the lines of these problems that, first of all, there is a demarcation between everything that is living and advanced in Soviet psychology, and everything that is outdated and dying. Ultimately, the question comes down to one thing: to transform psychology into a concrete, “real” science that studies human consciousness in the conditions of its activity and thus, in its most basic positions, is associated with specific questions posed by practice - this is the task. This book perhaps poses this problem more than it solves it. But in order for it to ever be resolved, it must be installed.
This book is to the point (good or bad - let others judge) research work that poses a number of fundamental problems in new ways. I will point out, as an example, a new interpretation of the history of psychology, the formulation of the problem of development and psychophysical problems, the interpretation of consciousness, experience and knowledge, a new understanding of functions and - from more specific issues - for example, the solution to the question of the stages of observation, the interpretation of the psychology of memory (in connection with the problem of reconstruction and reminiscence), on the theory of the development of coherent (“contextual”) speech in connection with the general theory of speech, etc. The focus of this book is not didactic, but scientific tasks.
At the same time, I especially emphasize one thing: this book bears my name and it contains the work of my thought; but at the same time it's still collective labor in the true sense of the word. It was not composed of a dozen or two dozen authors. Holding a pen one hand and she was guided united thought, but still collective work: a number of his main ideas crystallized as the common property of advanced psychological thought, and all the factual material on which this book is based is directly the product of collective work - the work of a narrower group of my closest collaborators and a team of a number of old and young psychologists of the Soviet Union. In this book, almost every chapter is based on material from Soviet psychological research, including unpublished ones. For the first time, perhaps, the work of Soviet psychologists is widely represented.
Contrary to very common trends of late, I did not try to avoid any of the pressing issues in this book. Some of them, according to the current state of science at this stage of its development, cannot yet be fully adequately resolved, and during their formulation, some errors can easily and even almost inevitably creep in. But staging them is still necessary. Without them, it is impossible for scientific thought to move forward. If it turns out that I made certain mistakes in posing some of these problems, criticism will soon reveal and correct them. Their very presentation and the discussion that it will cause will still benefit science, and this is the main thing for me.
I highly value the importance of business-like, positive criticism. Therefore, I willingly submit my work to criticism, even the most acute, as long as it is fundamental, as long as it advances science.
WITH.Rubinstein
The edition of S. L. Rubinstein’s “Fundamentals of General Psychology” that we bring to the reader’s attention is the fourth in a row. It was prepared by students of S. L. Rubinstein based on the publication of this book in 1946 and the works of S. L. Rubinstein in the 50s, that is, the works of the last decade of his life.
The classic work of S.L. Rubinstein, “Fundamentals of General Psychology,” is one of the most significant achievements of Russian psychological science. The breadth of theoretical generalizations, combined with an encyclopedic coverage of historical and experimental material, and impeccable clarity of methodological principles have made “Fundamentals...” a reference book for several generations of psychologists, teachers, and philosophers. Despite the fact that more than half a century has passed since its first publication, it remains one of the best textbooks on general psychology and fully retains its scientific relevance.
FROM THE COMPILERS
PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION
PART ONE
CHAPTER I. SUBJECT OF PSYCHOLOGY
Nature of the psyche
Psyche and consciousness
Psyche and activity
Psychophysical problem
The subject and tasks of psychology as a science
CHAPTER II. METHODS OF PSYCHOLOGY
Technique and methodology
Methods of psychology
Observation
Introspection
Objective observation
Experimental method
CHAPTER III. HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY
History of the development of Western psychology
Psychology in the XVII-XVIII centuries. and the first half of the 19th century.
Formation of psychology as an experimental science
Crisis of the methodological foundations of psychology
History of the development of psychology in the USSR
History of Russian scientific psychology
Soviet psychology
PART TWO
CHAPTER IV. THE PROBLEM OF DEVELOPMENT IN PSYCHOLOGY
Development of psyche and behavior
The main stages of development of behavior and psyche - the problem of instinct, skill and intelligence
Instincts
Individually variable forms of behavior
Intelligence
General conclusions
CHAPTER V. DEVELOPMENT OF BEHAVIOR AND PSYCHE OF ANIMALS
Behavior of lower organisms
Development of the nervous system in animals
Lifestyle and psyche
CHAPTER VI. HUMAN CONSCIOUSNESS
Historical development of consciousness in humans
The problem of anthropogenesis
Consciousness and brain
Development of consciousness
Development of consciousness in a child
Development and training
Development of a child's consciousness
PART THREE
INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER VII. SENSATION AND PERCEPTION
Feeling
Receptors
Elements of psychophysics
Classification of sensations
Organic sensations
Static sensations
Kinesthetic sensations
Skin sensitivity
1. Pain
2 and 3. Temperature sensations
4. Touch, pressure
Touch
Olfactory sensations
Taste sensations
Auditory sensations*
Sound localization
Hearing theory
Perception of speech and music
Visual sensations
Feeling of color
Mixing colors
Psychophysiological patterns
Theory of color perception
Psychophysical effect of flowers
Color perception
Perception
The nature of perception
Constancy of perception
Meaningfulness of perception
Historicity of perception
Personality perception and orientation
Perception of space
Perception of magnitude
Shape perception
Motion perception
Perception of time
Chapter VIII. MEMORY
Memory and perception
Organic foundations of memory
Representation
Performance associations
Memory theory
The role of attitudes in memorization
Memorization
Recognition
Playback
Reconstruction in playback
Memory
Saving and Forgetting
Reminiscence in preservation
Types of memory
Memory levels
Memory types
CHAPTER IX. IMAGINATION
The Nature of Imagination
Types of imagination
Imagination and creativity
"Technique" of imagination
Imagination and personality
CHAPTER X. THINKING
The nature of thinking
Psychology and logic
Psychological theories of thinking
Psychological nature of the thought process
Main phases of the thought process
Basic operations as aspects of mental activity
Concept and presentation
Inference
Basic types of thinking
About the genetically early stages of thinking
Development of a child's thinking
The first manifestations of a child’s intellectual activity
The child's first generalizations
"Situational" thinking of a child
The beginning of the child’s active mental activity
Generalizations in a preschooler and his understanding of relationships
The child’s inferences and understanding of causality
Distinctive features of early forms of children's thinking
Development of a child’s thinking in the process of systematic learning
Concept Mastery
Judgments and inferences
Development of theoretical thinking in the process of mastering a knowledge system
Theory of development of a child's thinking
CHAPTER XI. SPEECH
Speech and communication. Functions of speech
Different types of speech
Speech and thinking
Speech development in children
The emergence and first stages of child speech development
Speech structure
Development of coherent speech
The problem of egocentric speech
Development of written speech in a child
Development of expressive speech
CHAPTER XII. ATTENTION
Attention theory
Physiological basis of attention
Main types of attention
Basic properties of attention
Development of attention
PART FOUR
INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER XIII. ACTION
Various types of action
Action and movement
Action and skill
CHAPTER XIV. ACTIVITY
Objectives and motives of activity
Work
Psychological characteristics of work
The work of an inventor
The work of a scientist
Artist's work
A game
Nature of the game
Game theories
Development of child's games
Teaching
The nature of learning and work
Learning and knowledge
Education and development
Motives of the teaching
Mastering the knowledge system
PART FIVE
INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER XV. ORIENTATION OF PERSONALITY
Attitudes and trends
Needs
Interests
Ideals
CHAPTER XVI. CAPABILITIES
General talent and special abilities
Giftedness and ability level
Theories of giftedness
Development of abilities in children
CHAPTER XVII. EMOTIONS
Emotions and needs
Emotions and lifestyle
Emotions and activity
Expressive movements
Emotions and experiences of the individual
"Associative" experiment
Types of emotional experiences
Emotional personality traits
CHAPTER XVIII. WILL
The Nature of Will
Volitional process
Pathology and psychology of will
Volitional personality traits
CHAPTER XIX. TEMPERAMENT AND CHARACTER
Doctrine of Temperament
Teaching about character
CHAPTER XX. SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS OF A PERSON AND HIS LIFE PATH
Personal self-awareness
Personal life path*
AFTERWORD
HISTORICAL CONTEXT AND MODERN SOUND OF S. L. RUBINSTEIN’S FUNDAMENTAL WORK
LIST OF SCIENTIFIC WORKS OF S. L. RUBINSTEIN
LIST OF WORKS ABOUT S. L. RUBINSTEIN
ALPHABETIC INDEX
to be forever chained to a certain profession and in accordance with how
this profession is socially regarded, to occupy this or that place in public
hierarchy of society. This is evil. It must be overcome. Overcoming
direct psychomorphological correlations in the doctrine of abilities and
dates - this is the first prerequisite for building a truly scientific theory O
abilities.
Abilities are formed in the process of interaction between a person who has
one or another natural qualities, with the world. The results of human action
telnosti, generalizing and consolidating, they enter as “building materials post-
the growth of his abilities. These latter form an alloy of original natural qualities
person and the results of his activities. True human achievements are postponed -
exist not only outside of him, in certain objects generated by him, but also in himself.
A person's abilities are equipment that is forged not without his participation.
A person’s abilities are determined by the range of those opportunities for mastering new
knowledge and its application to creative development, which opens up the development of these
knowledge. The development of any ability occurs in a spiral: the realization of the possibility
features that the ability represents this level, opens up new possibilities
opportunities for developing abilities more high level. Ability more than anything
affects the ability to use knowledge as methods, the results of previous
the active work of thought - as a means of its active development.
The starting point for the development of a person’s diverse abilities is
functional specificity of various modalities of sensitivity. Yes, at the base
general auditory sensitivity during a person’s communication with other people,
carried out through language, a person develops speech, phonetic
cue hearing, determined by phonemic structure native language. More significant
a powerful “mechanism” for the formation of speech (phonemic) hearing - as a reinforced
individual ability, and not just one or another auditory perception
as a process - is a generalized system of op-
limited phonetic relationships. Generalization of relevant relations,
always broader than the generalization of its members, determines
the ability to separate general sensitivity properties from specific data
perceptions and consolidation of these properties of sensitivity (in this case auditory)
in the individual as his abilities. The direction of generalization and, accordingly,
but, the differentiation of those and not other sounds (phonemes), characteristic of a specific
language, determines the specific content or profile of this ability.
A significant role in the formation of language acquisition abilities does not play
only generalization (and differentiation) of phonetic relations. No less
generalization of grammatical relations is important; essential component
An essential element of the ability to master languages is the ability to generalize
relations underlying word formation and inflection. Way-
capable of mastering a language is one who can easily and quickly, based on a small
number of trials, generalization of the relations underlying word formation occurs
introduction to inflection, and as a result - the transfer of these relations to other cases.
Generalization of certain relations naturally presupposes an appropriate
analysis.
The subtlety of analysis and breadth of generalization characteristic of a given individual, easy
bone and the speed with which these processes occur in him form the starting
path, the initial prerequisite for the formation of his abilities - linguistic, mathematical
cultural, etc.
Ability as a personality property must be expressed in actions, allowing
transferring from one environment to another, from one material to another. Therefore in
the basis of abilities should be generalization. Speaking of generalization, we are not
limiting ourselves to a generalization of the material, we consider it necessary to especially
draw a generalization (or generalization) of relations, since it is generalization
relations gives a particularly broad transfer. (Hence the path to reversibility of operations.)
Generalization or generalization of certain relationships is necessary
component of all abilities, but in each ability there is a generalization
different relationships, different material.
- Rubinshtein S.L. - 1999.
A critical summary of the achievements of Soviet and world psychological science in the mid-20th century is presented. This book is one of the main textbooks on general psychology in Russia, which has remained so for more than half a century. This is the last “author’s” edition of this textbook; subsequent editions (3rd 1989, 4th 1998), - edited by students of S. L. Rubinstein - are, although partially supplemented by his later works and comments by the compilers, but significantly abridged (and some changes to the original text are not marked) and are not positioned as full-fledged textbooks on general psychology.
The book is intended for teachers and graduate students of psychology and pedagogy, as well as students of higher pedagogical educational institutions and universities.
Part one
Chapter I. The subject of psychology 7
Nature of the psyche 7
Psyche and consciousness 15
Psyche and activity 19
Psychophysical problem 22
The subject and tasks of psychology as a science 27
Chapter II. Methods of psychology 37
Technique and methodology 37
Methods of psychology 38
Observation 42
Introspection. 42 Objective observation 46
Experimental method 49
Chapter III. History of Psychology 54
History of the development of Western psychology 54
Psychology in the XVII-XVIII centuries. And the first half of the 19th century. 54
Formalization of psychology as an experimental science 61
Crisis of the methodological foundations of psychology 64
History of psychology in the USSR 77
History of Russian scientific psychology 77
Soviet psychology 87
Part two
Chapter IV. The problem of development in psychology 94
Development of psyche and behavior 103
The main stages of development of behavior and psyche 107
The problem of instinct, skill and intelligence 107
Instincts108
Individually variable forms of behavior113
Intelligence121
General conclusions124
Chapter V. Development of animal behavior and psyche 132
Behavior of lower organisms 132
Development of the nervous system in animals 133
Lifestyle and psyche 136
Chapter VI. Human consciousness 142
Historical development of consciousness in humans 142
The problem of anthropogenesis 142
Consciousness and brain 145
Development of consciousness 152
Development of consciousness in a child 159
Development and training 159
Development of a child’s consciousness 170
Part three
Introduction 174
Chapter VII. Sensation and perception 189
Feeling 189
Receptors 191
Elements of psychophysics 192
Psychophysiological patterns 195
Classification of sensations 197
Organic Sensations 201
Static sensations 206
Kinesthetic sensations 207
Skin sensitivity 207
1.Pain 208
2. and 3. Temperature sensations 209
4. Touch, pressure 211
Touch 212
Olfactory sensations 214
Taste sensations 215
Auditory sensations 217
Sound localization 222
Hearing Theory 225
Perception of speech and music 227
Visual sensations 231
Feeling of color 232
Color mixing 233
Psychophysiological patterns 235
Theory of color perception 239
Psychophysical effect of flowers 240
Color perception 241
Perception 243
The nature of perception 243
Constancy of perception 252
Meaningfulness of perception 253
Historicity of perception 257
Perception and orientation of personality 258
Perception of space 259
Perception of magnitude 265
Shape perception 265
Motion perception 267
Time perception 270
Chapter VIII. Memory 277
Memory and perception 277
Organic Foundations of Memory 280
Views 282
Presentation associations 286
Memory theory 286
The role of attitudes in memorization 292
Memorization 295
Recognition 300
Play 301
Reconstruction in reproduction 303
Memory 305
Storing and Forgetting 307
Reminiscence in conservation 311
Types of memory 315
Memory levels 315
Memory types 317
Chapter IX. Imagination 320
The Nature of Imagination 320
Types of imagination 324
Imagination and creativity 326
"Technique" of imagination 330
Imagination and Personality 333
Chapter X. Thinking 335
The nature of thinking 335
Psychology and logic 338
Psychological theories of thinking 339
Psychological nature of the thought process 343
Main phases of the thought process 348
Basic operations as aspects of mental activity 351
Concept and presentation 356
Inference 360
Basic types of thinking 362
On the genetically early stages of thinking 368
Development of a child's thinking 372
The first manifestations of a child’s intellectual activity 373
The child's first generalizations 377
“Situational” thinking of a child 379
The beginning of the child’s active mental activity
Generalizations in a preschooler and his understanding of relationships
The child’s inferences and understanding of causality
Distinctive features of early forms of children's thinking 380
Development of a child’s thinking in the process of systematic learning 394
Concept Mastery
Judgments and inferences 396
Development of theoretical thinking in the process of mastering a knowledge system 400
Theory of development of a child's thinking 404
Chapter XI. Speech 414
Speech and communication. Functions of speech 414
Various types of speech 424
Speech and thinking 428
Speech development in children 431
The emergence and first stages of development of child speech 431
Speech structure 436
Development of coherent speech 438
The problem of egocentric speech 445
Development of written speech in a child 447
Development of expressive speech 450
Chapter XII. Attention 453
Attention Theory 455
Physiological basis of attention 458
Basic types of attention 459
Basic properties of attention 462
Development of attention 469
Part four
Introduction 473
Chapter XIII. Action 483
Various types of action 485
Action and movement 487
Action and skill 495
Chapter XIV. Activity 507
Objectives and motives of activity 507
Labor 515
Psychological characteristics of work 516
Inventor's work 518
Work of a scientist 522
Artist's work 525
Game 529
The nature of the game 529
Game theory 535
Development of child's games 537
Teaching 540
The nature of learning and work 540
Learning and knowledge 542
Training and development 544
Motives of teaching 545
Mastering the knowledge system 548
Part five
Introduction 558
Chapter XV. Personality orientation 566
Installation and trends 566
Needs 570
Interests 573
Ideals 580
Chapter XVI. Abilities 584
General talent and special abilities 589
Giftedness and ability level 593
Theories of Giftedness 595
Development of abilities in children 599
Chapter XVII. Emotions 602
Emotions and needs 602
Emotions and lifestyle 605
Emotions and activity 610
Expressive movements 618
Emotions and experiences of personality 624
"Associative" experiment 626
Types of emotional experiences 627
Emotional personality traits 638
Chapter XVIII. Will 642
The nature of the will 642
Volitional process 649
Pathology and psychology of will 659
Volitional qualities 663
Chapter XIX. Temperament and character 670
The doctrine of temperament 670
Teaching about character 678
Chapter XX. Self-awareness of the individual and her life path 694
Personal self-awareness 694
Personal life path 701
Afterword 706
List scientific works 738
List of works 742
Download the e-book for free in a convenient format, watch and read:
Download the book Fundamentals of General Psychology - Rubinstein S.L. - fileskachat.com, fast and free download.