History table liberal reforms 60-70 years.

The transformations in the Russian Empire of the 60-70s of the century before last are called liberal reforms. The pivotal event of the long-term process was the Great Peasant Reform of 1861. It determined the course of further bourgeois reforms and reorganizations taken by the government of Alexander II. It was necessary to reorganize the political superstructure, rebuild the court, army and much more.

Thus, Alexander II's understanding urgent need carrying out peasant reform led him, in the course of implementing the plan, to carry out a set of reforms in all areas public life Russia. Without meaning to, the emperor took steps towards a bourgeois monarchy, which was based on the transition to an industrial society, a market economy and parliamentarism. The assassination of the Tsar in March 1881 turned the country's direction in a different direction.

Reform of zemstvo and city management

After the abolition of serfdom, the nobility became concerned about the strengthening of its role in political life countries. The government of reformers sensitively grasped the mood of the ruling class and developed zemstvo, and a little later, city reforms.

The reforms were carried out in accordance with the “Regulations on provincial and district local institutions” of January 1, 1864 in 34 provinces of the European part of the empire and the “City Regulations” of June 16, 1870.

The main principles of zemstvo and city reforms were:

1. Separation of local self-government from administrative power.
2. Election of governing bodies and all-class representation.
3. Independence in financial and economic matters.

Democratic judicial reform

Judicial, of all liberal reforms, is considered the most consistent. Since 1861, work began on the “Basic provisions for the transformation of the judicial part of Russia.” In 1864, the sovereign approved modern judicial statutes that defined new principles of legal proceedings:

The Emperor had the right to correct the decisions of all courts through administrative measures.

Overdue army reform

Experience Crimean War showed that Russia needs a massive army with the necessary reserves and a trained officer corps. The rearmament of the army and the restructuring of the military command system are urgently needed. The reform began to be prepared back in 1861 and was implemented in 1874 in the following steps:

1. 15 military districts were created.
2. Establishment of a network of military educational institutions.
3. New military regulations have been introduced.
4. Equipping the army with new types of weapons.
5. Cancellation of the recruitment system.
6. Introduction of universal conscription for army recruitment.

As a result, the combat effectiveness of the Russian army increased significantly.

Educational reform

The establishment of the “Regulations on Primary Public Schools” of 1864 and the Charter of the Secondary School solved the problems:

• accessibility of education for all classes;
• monopoly of the state and church in the field of education, permission to zemstvos, public associations and for private individuals to open educational institutions;
• gender equality, opening higher courses for women;
• expanding the autonomy of universities.

The reform affected all three educational levels and was significant for the development of the country.

Related reforms

In addition to significant reforms, the following were simultaneously carried out:

Financial reform of 1860 - 1864, which consisted in the transformation banking system and strengthening the role of the Ministry of Finance.

Tax reform manifested itself in the abolition of wine farming, the introduction of indirect taxes and the determination of the limits of zemstvo taxation.

The censorship reform abolished previews of works, but introduced a system of sanctions after publication.

The peasant reform of 1861 led to changes in the economic structure of society, which necessitated the transformation of the political system. The new bourgeois reforms, wrested from the government during the period of democratic upsurge, were a by-product of the revolutionary struggle.

Reforms in Russia were not a cause, but a consequence of the development of socio-economic processes. At the same time, after implementation, the reforms objectively had the opposite effect on these processes. The reforms carried out were of a contradictory nature - tsarism tried to adapt the old political system autocracy to new conditions without changing its class essence. The reforms (1863-1874) were half-hearted, inconsistent and unfinished. They were designed during the years of the revolutionary situation, and some of them were carried out 10-15 years later in the context of the decline of the revolutionary wave. The tasks of organizing local self-government were to be solved by zemstvo and city reforms. In accordance with the “Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions” (1864), elected local government bodies - zemstvos - were introduced in the districts and provinces. Formally, zemstvo institutions consisted of representatives of all classes, but suffrage was determined by property qualifications. Members of zemstvo assemblies (vocals) were elected in three curiae: landowners, urban voters and electors from rural societies (in the last curia elections were multi-level). The chairman of the meetings was the leader of the nobility. Executive bodies were also created - provincial and district zemstvo councils. Zemstvos did not have political functions and did not have executive power; they resolved mainly economic issues, but even within these limits they were controlled by governors and the Ministry of Internal Affairs. Zemstvos were introduced gradually (until 1879) and not in all regions of the empire. Already at this time their competence was increasingly limited by the government. However, despite the restrictions, zemstvos in Russia played a significant role in resolving issues of both economic and cultural nature (education, medicine, zemstvo statistics, etc.). The new system of city government institutions (city councils and councils), created on the basis of the “City Regulations” (1870), was based on the bourgeois principle of a single property qualification. Elections took place in curiae, which were determined in accordance with the amount of tax paid. The overwhelming majority of residents who do not have an established property qualification were excluded from the elections. As a result of the reform of local government bodies, the dominant position in zemstvos (especially at the provincial level) was occupied by the nobility, and in city councils - by representatives of the big bourgeoisie. City government bodies were also under the constant control of the government and mainly resolved issues related to the management of the city economy.

The Russian legal system remained the most archaic in the mid-19th century.

The trial was class-based, the sessions were private and were not covered in the press. The judges were completely dependent on the administration, and the defendants had no defense lawyers. The bourgeois principle was most clearly manifested in the new judicial statutes of 1864, which were based on the main principles of bourgeois law: the lack of class of the court, the adversarial nature of the process, publicity and independence of judges. The result of judicial reform was the introduction of two systems in Russia: crown and magistrate courts. The Crown Court had two jurisdictions: the district court and the trial chamber. During the trial, the prosecutor brought the charge, and the defense was conducted by lawyers (sworn attorneys). The decision on the guilt of the accused was made by elected jurors. The punishment was determined by the judge and two members of the court. Magistrates' courts tried minor crimes; legal proceedings here were conducted by magistrates elected by zemstvo assemblies or city dumas. However, even on new system legal proceedings bore the imprint of old feudal remnants. Thus, special courts for certain categories of the population were retained (for example, volost courts for peasants). The transparency of legal proceedings and the independence of judges from the administration were also limited. Military reforms. The need to increase the combat capability of the Russian army, which became obvious already during the Crimean War and clearly declared itself during the European events of the 60-70s, when the Prussian army demonstrated its combat capability (the unification of Germany under the leadership of Prussia, the Franco-Prussian War of 1870) , demanded the implementation of fundamental military reforms. These reforms were carried out under the leadership of Minister of War D.A. Milyutin. In 1864, he introduced a system of military districts, and somewhat later centralized military administration. The system of military educational institutions was reformed, and new military regulations were adopted. The army was being rearmed. In 1874, all-class military service with a limited period of military service was introduced in Russia. Military service, instead of 25 years, was established for a period of 6 years (in active service) and 9 years in reserve. They served in the navy for 7 years and 3 years in the reserves. These periods were significantly reduced for persons with education. Thus, a mass army of the bourgeois type was created in the country, with limited personnel in peacetime and large human resources in case of war. However, as before, the cadre of officers of the Russian army consisted mainly of nobles, while the soldiers, who came from the peasant masses, had no rights.

Zemstvo reform. After the adoption of the Peasant Reform, there was a need to transform local government bodies. In 1864, zemstvo reform began to be introduced in the Russian Empire. In districts and provinces, zemstvo institutions were formed, which were elected bodies. Zemstvos did not have political functions, mainly their competence included solving local problems, regulating the work of schools and hospitals, building roads, controlling trade and small industrial facilities. Zemstvos were controlled by local and central authorities, who had the right to refute the decisions of these bodies or suspend their activities. In cities, city councils were created, which had the same powers as zemstvos. The dominant role in zemstvos and city dumas belonged to representatives of the bourgeois class. Despite the fact that the reforms had a very narrow structure and did not actually solve the problems of socio-economic life, they became the first step towards the introduction of liberal democracy in the Russian Empire. Further introduction of reforms was completely stopped by the death of the emperor. His son Alexander II saw a completely different path of development for Russia. Financial reforms. The development of capitalist relations led to the reorganization of the financial system of the empire, which was greatly upset during the war. Among the most important events to streamline finances was the creation of the State Bank (1860), streamlining the process of formation state budget, transformation of state control. The consequence of the “sober” movement was the abolition of wine farming. Despite the fact that the financial reforms were bourgeois in nature, they did not change the class nature of the taxation system, in which the entire burden of taxes fell on the tax-paying population. Reforms in the field of education and press. The needs of the country's economic and political life made changes in the organization of public education necessary. In 1864, the “Regulations on Primary Public Schools” was published, which expanded the network of primary educational institutions. According to the “Regulations,” public institutions and even private individuals were allowed to open primary schools, but all of them were under the control of school councils. They taught writing, reading, the rules of arithmetic, the law of God and church singing in elementary school. Majority primary schools were zemstvo (created by zemstvos), church-parish and “ministerial” (established by the Ministry of Public Education). In 1864, a new charter of gymnasiums was introduced, which began to be divided into classical (focused on noble and bureaucratic children) and real (mainly for children of the bourgeoisie). We studied in gymnasiums for 7 years. In classical gymnasiums, emphasis was placed on a thorough study of ancient languages ​​(Latin and Greek), in real ones, instead of “classical” languages, extended courses were taught natural sciences. Graduates of classical gymnasiums could enter universities without exams; “realistically” they mainly went to technical higher educational institutions. The number of primary and secondary educational institutions in Russia increased rapidly during the post-reform period. At the end of the 50s there were about 8 thousand, at the beginning of the 80s - over 22 thousand, and by the mid-90s over 78 thousand. However, end of the 19th century V. Russia remained a country of illiterate people; there were almost 80% of them. In 1863, a new university statute came into force, which restored and expanded the autonomy of universities. New higher educational institutions were opened in the country, including technical ones, as well as women's courses in Moscow, St. Petersburg, and Kyiv. During the reforms, the government was forced to make a number of concessions in the field of censorship. “Temporary Rules for the Press” (1865) partially abolished preliminary censorship in the capitals, but at the same time established judicial liability for persons who violated the legislation in this area. Thus, despite the opposition of conservative circles, a whole complex of bourgeois reforms was implemented in Russia in the 60-70s. Many of them were contradictory and inconsistent, but in general they were a step forward towards the transformation of the Russian feudal monarchy into a bourgeois monarchy, contributed to the development of capitalist relations in the country, the growth of the economy and culture, and raised the prestige of Russia in the field of international relations. The revolutionary situation in the country did not develop into a revolution. Having reformed the political superstructure of society, the autocracy managed to retain its main positions; this created the preconditions for a possible turn, a reversal, which manifested itself during the period of reaction and counter-reforms of the 80-90s of the 19th century. The development of capitalism and the formation of the industrial proletariat in Russia in the 60s - mid-90s of the XIX century. After the abolition of serfdom, the development of capitalism in the country began at an unprecedented pace. Capitalist relations covered all spheres of the economy and contributed to the acceleration of the pace of development of the Russian national economy. For the period 60-90s of the XIX century. There are such important phenomena in the country's economy as the completion of the industrial revolution and the rapid development of a number of important industries, the gradual restructuring of the agricultural sector in a new capitalist way, the formation of the proletariat and the Russian industrial bourgeoisie.

Topic: “Liberal r
6070s shapes

XIX
century"
Goals:
educational: acquaintance with the basic provisions of the zemstvo,
urban, military, judicial reforms, transformations in the field
education and press; work on the formation of the concept of “zemstvo”,
"law", "juror".
educational: based on identifying historical parallels between
position of Russia in the middle. XIX century and the current political situation,
showing the importance of studying this topic for the development of modern
legal state.
developmental: skill formation independent work With
historical sources, development of skills in working with the diagram, development
skills to compare historical phenomena, ability to draw conclusions.
Equipment: card " Russian empire in the second half. 19th century”, diagrams
“System of zemstvo self-government bodies”, “Structure of urban
self-government", "Judicial system according to the reform of 1864".
Lesson type: combined.
Teacher activities
and students
1. Homework survey
(13 minutes).
Frontal.
Individually.
Frontal.
Individually (in writing, in
boards). Frontal.
Summing up the survey results.
Techniques and teaching aids
Define the meaning of the concepts: “statutory
1.What is the name of the topic that we studied in the past?
lesson?
2. Which chapter does this topic belong to?
3. What is the impact of the ongoing reforms on your
look, contributed by the personality of Alexander II?
4. Define the most important reasons cancellations
serfdom.
5. Do you agree with the statement that peasant
Was the reform a reform “from above”? Why?
6. What are the main provisions of the reform?
7.
letter", "redemption", "temporarily obliged peasants",
"segments"?
8.
peasants with an annual rent of 12 rubles?
9.
the charter was drawn up; peasants were transferred to
position of temporary workers; the peasants should
Should I repay the loan to the state?
10.
The abolition of serfdom radically changed
structure of social relations. Changed
the situation required the adoption of new laws, the introduction
new management institutions.
During what period: should have been
Calculate the amount of the redemption payment
What was the significance of the reform?

2. Write the topic of the lesson on the board
and in notebooks. Finishing
target setting of the lesson to
student information.
Learning new material
(25 minutes).
Working with a document.
Statement of the problem
tasks.
This task was fulfilled to a certain extent by the reforms 60
70s XIX century During the lesson we must find out what it is like
the main content of reform reforms
Alexandra II.
"Reforms of the 6070s of the 19th century."
Plan for learning new material:
Zemstvo (1864) and city (1870) reform.
I.
Judicial reform (1864).
II.
Military reform (1874).
III.
IV.
Transformations in the field of education and censorship.
I. The first of the urgent reforms was the establishment of bodies
local government. Local law
self-government, adopted in 1864, determined the structure
zemstvo institutions and their competence.
Zemstvos were introduced in districts and provinces, and each of them
had administrative (zemstvo assemblies) and
executive (zemstvo councils) bodies. They were
landowners, owners of non-landed real estate
property, peasants. Elections for the first two curiae
were carried out on the basis of property qualifications.
Provincial assemblies were elected at a meeting of district representatives
number of vowels (deputies elected by the population of the counties).
Read the document on page 157 of the textbook and
indicate the terms of reference of zemstvos.
DOCUMENT
Management of property and land fees
The structure and maintenance of those belonging to the zemstvo
Care for the development of local trade
Measures to ensure the people's food supply.
Management of zemstvo charitable
Cases subject to the management of zemstvo institutions...
1.
zemstvo
2.
buildings, other structures and communications.
3.
4.
institutions... ways to end poverty.
5.
and industry.
6. Participation... in the care of public education, about
public health and prisons. Zemstvo authorities
were initially elected only in 33 out of 50
Russian provinces, where there was a strong influence
nobility. Their main weakness was that
zemstvos could not work at full capacity: budget
satisfied the real needs of zemstvos only for
80%. However, contrary to the expectations of the government, zemstvo
did not concentrate on solving local economic affairs, but
actively involved in political struggle, becoming the basis
liberal movement in Russia.
On similar terms with the zemstvo in 1870 there was
urban reform was carried out. Let's look at the diagram.

STRUCTURE OF CITY SELF-GOVERNMENT
City mayor
Class activation. Working with
scheme.
City government
City Duma

Small Medium Large
Payers of city fees
Representative bodies of city government
there were city councils elected for four years from
number of city owners, city payers
taxes. Voters were added to the list in order
reducing the amount of tax they pay. Then
the list was divided into three equal parts, from each
of whom a third of the deputies (vocals) were elected
city ​​council. The City Duma elected members
city ​​government and city mayor (executive
city ​​government bodies). In competence
city ​​government bodies had questions
improvement, management of school, medical and
charitable cause.
Listen to excerpts from the document and determine
how city governments
depended on the royal administration.
DOCUMENT
From the city position (1870)
Class activation. Work with
document. Staging
problematic task.
City public administration,
"Care and disposal of the city
1.
housekeeping and improvement is provided
city ​​public administration, and supervision over
legal it
execution to the Governor, on the exact basis of the rules
of this Regulation.
2.
V
his decisions and orders cannot
leave the circle of affairs indicated to him.
All sorts of things
his decree, in contrast to this
held, is invalid.
3.
Persons elected to the position of City Mayor, and
also appointed to temporarily replace this
positions... are confirmed in these ranks: in provincial
cities by the Minister of Internal Affairs, and in other cities
Governor."
In general, city governments did not accept
participation in a social movement due to political

Write on the board and in notebooks.
Lack of class.
Publicity.
Competitiveness.
Election of judges.
inertia of the merchants.
II. Simultaneously with the zemstvo reform in 1864,
At the insistence of the public, the government carried out
judicial reform. The reform introduced new principles
legal proceedings.
Principles of legal proceedings:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5. Independence of judges from the administration.
The main link in the judicial system was the district
trial with a jury. 12 jurors
Assessors were elected by lot for each trial
process. Candidates for jury duty must
were to satisfy a number of requirements, one of which
property qualification. Based on the jury's verdict
(“guilty”, “not guilty”, “guilty but deserves”
leniency") the court passed a sentence. Supreme Judicial
the authority was the Senate. The magistrate's court decided minor
criminal and civil cases. It consisted of one
judge elected for three years by city councils and
zemstvo assemblies. During this period the judge could not
be displaced. The administration could not interfere with
legal proceedings.
Despite the progressiveness
main provisions of judicial reform, it remained
unfinished: class courts were retained;
there were restrictions on the right to serve on a jury
assessor. We will consider the structure of the court bodies according to
scheme.
JUDICIAL SYSTEM REFORMED 1864
Class activation. Working with
scheme.
Senate
Judges
Prosecutor 12 jurors Lawyer
(property qualification)
World judge
City Duma Zemstvo Magistrate Court
III. Remember the reasons for Russia's defeat in the Crimean
war and think about what measures were taken in the army
necessary.
One of the most important transformations of the Alexandrovsky
Class activation.

Writing in notebooks.
Writing in notebooks.
Consolidation (5 minutes)
reign military reform, which was carried out with
1860s to 1874. Supervised the preparation and implementation
reforms, Minister of War Dmitry Alekseevich
Milyutin.
The content of the reform is as follows:
1. abolition of the recruitment system for the army;
2. reduction in service life: 6 years in the infantry and 7 years in
navy;
3. change tactics; new ones are accepted
military regulations;
4. improving the leadership of the armed forces,
Russia is divided into military districts;
5. rearmament of the army;
6. replenishment of the officer corps with qualified
personnel.
The military reform drew sharp criticism from conservatives.
But already the first serious challenge Russian-Turkish
war 1877-1878 showed high level combat
army training.
Carrying out reforms required preparation
IV.
qualified specialists,
so before
the government of Alexander II was faced with the task of radical
reforming public education.
The change in the education system can be reduced to
to the following:
1. introduction of new university (1863) and school
(1864) charters;
2. restoration of the autonomy of universities;
3. election of the rector, deans, teachers;
4. creation of a council that decided all internal
university affairs;
5. significant increase in the number of primary and secondary
educational institutions, including for children from
low-income families. In 1865 they adopted
"Temporary rules" on censorship, according to which
preliminary censorship of manuscripts was abolished. But in
In general, censorship reform turned out to be the most timid of all
transformations of the 6070s.
●
consistent character?
●
a well-thought-out system?
●
How can you explain more or less
depth of reforms in different areas life then
Russia?
●
capitalism, and what hindered its development?
Contemporaries of Alexander II called the reforms of the 6070s.
"great". And indeed, new ones were created,
modern organs self-government and courts, reforms
Which reforms, in your opinion, had the most impact?
Are the reforms of the 6070s? XIX century single
What in the reforms made it possible to develop

Summarizing.

contributed to the growth of the country's productive forces, its
defense capability,
civil
development
self-awareness among the population,
dissemination
education, improving the quality of life. Russia
joined the pan-European process of creating
advanced, civilized forms of statehood. But
the reforms were half-hearted: in the local
the management had strong remnants of serfdom,
many noble privileges remained intact,
Explanation of home
tasks (2 minutes).
the reforms did not affect the upper levels of power.
Read paragraph 2324 of the textbook “Continuation
reforms."
Answer the questions on page 167 of the textbook.
(When preparing your homework, pay attention
on documents placed in the margins and at the end of the paragraph)
Remember the dates historical concepts, personalities
Topics.

The abolition of serfdom posed new serious problems for the authorities. For centuries, the serf system in Russia determined the organization of the management and judicial system, the principles of recruiting the army, etc. The collapse of this system dictated the need for further reforms.

Zemstvo and city reforms

The abolition of serfdom created many empty spaces in the previously existing system of local government, because this latter was closely connected with serfdom. Thus, before, each landowner on his estate was the personification of power for his peasants. And in the district and provincial administration, most of the positions since the time of Catherine II were filled by the choice of the nobility and from among its representatives. After the abolition of serfdom, this entire system collapsed. The local economy was already extremely neglected. Health care was practically absent from the village. Epidemics claimed thousands of lives. The peasants did not know basic hygiene rules. Public education could not get out of its infancy. Some landowners who maintained schools for their peasants closed them immediately after the abolition of serfdom. No one cared about the country roads. Thus, it was urgent to find a way out of this intolerable situation, given that the state treasury was depleted and the government could not improve the local economy on its own. Therefore, it was decided to meet the liberal public halfway (especially from non-black earth provinces), which petitioned for the introduction of local all-class self-government.

These ideas were expressed by N.A. Milyutin in a note addressed to the emperor. Once approved by the latter, they became the guiding principles of the reform. These principles were expressed in the formula: give local government as much confidence as possible, as much independence as possible and as much unity as possible.

On January 1, 1864, the law on zemstvo self-government was approved. The zemstvo reform began, during which a system of local self-government bodies was created in Russia at two territorial levels - in the district and the province. The administrative bodies of the zemstvo were the district and provincial zemstvo assemblies, and the executive bodies were the district and provincial zemstvo councils. Elections of zemstvo bodies were held every three years. In each district, three electoral congresses (curia) were created for the election of members of the district zemstvo assembly. The first curia (private landowners) included persons, regardless of class, who had at least 200-800 dessiatines. land (land qualifications were different in different counties). The second (rural societies) - elected from volost assemblies. The third curia (city voters) included city property owners with a certain property qualification. Each of the congresses elected a certain equal number of vowels (for a period of three years). District zemstvo assemblies elected members of the provincial zemstvo. To carry out their tasks, zemstvos received the right to impose a special tax on the population.

As a rule, nobles predominated in zemstvo assemblies. Despite conflicts with liberal landowners, the autocracy considered the landed nobility its main support. Therefore, the chairmen of district assemblies automatically (ex officio) became the district leaders of the nobility, and the chairmen of provincial assemblies - the provincial leaders. Zemstvos were introduced only in 34 provinces of European Russia. He was not in Siberia and the Arkhangelsk province, because... there were no landowners there. Zemstvos were not introduced in the Don Army Region, in the Astrakhan and Orenburg provinces, where Cossack self-government existed.

The functions of zemstvos were quite diverse. They were in charge of the local economy (construction and maintenance of local roads, etc.), public education, medicine, and statistics. However, they could engage in all these matters only within the boundaries of their district or province. Zemstvo members had no right not only to solve any problems of a national nature, but even to raise them for discussion. Moreover, provincial zemstvos were forbidden to communicate with each other and coordinate their activities even on such issues as the fight against hunger, epidemics, and livestock deaths.

Milyutin did not insist on expanding the competence of zemstvos, but believed that in their field of activity they should enjoy complete autonomy and independence from local administrative authorities, subordinate only to the Senate, and that governors should only be given the right to oversee the legality of their actions.

The shortcomings of the zemstvo reform were obvious: the incompleteness of the structure of zemstvo bodies (the absence of a higher central body), the artificial creation of a numerical advantage for the landed nobility, and limited scope of activity. At the same time, this reform was of serious importance. The very fact of the emergence in Russia of a system of self-government, fundamentally different from the dominant bureaucratic system, was important. The election of zemstvo bodies and their relative independence from bureaucratic structures made it possible to count on the fact that these bodies, with all their shortcomings, would proceed from the interests of the local population and bring them real benefits. These hopes were generally justified. Soon after the creation of zemstvos, Russia was covered with a network of zemstvo schools and hospitals.

With the advent of the zemstvo, the balance of power in the province began to change. Previously, all affairs in the districts were carried out by government officials together with the landowners. Now that a network of schools has expanded. hospitals and statistical bureaus, the “third element” appeared, as zemstvo doctors, teachers, agronomists, and statisticians began to be called. Many representatives of the rural intelligentsia showed high examples of serving the people. The peasants trusted them, and the government listened to their advice. Government officials watched with alarm the growing influence of the “third element.”

As soon as they were born, zemstvos met with an extremely hostile attitude towards themselves from all government bodies - central and local, and soon lost a significant part of their already small powers, which led to the fact that many worthy figures of the zemstvo movement cooled towards it and left the zemstvo councils and meetings.

According to the law, zemstvos were purely economic organizations. But they soon began to play an important political role. In those years, the most enlightened and humane landowners usually entered the zemstvo service. They became members of zemstvo assemblies, members and chairmen of councils. They stood at the origins of the zemstvo liberal movement. And representatives of the “third element” gravitated towards left-wing, democratic, currents of social thought. There was hope in society for further steps in radical reconstruction political system Russia. Liberal leaders, who wholeheartedly welcomed the reform, consoled themselves with the dream of “crowning the building” - the creation of an all-Russian representative body on a zemstvo basis, which would be progress towards a constitutional monarchy. But the government took a completely different path. As it turned out later, in 1864 she gave the maximum self-government that she considered possible. Government policy towards zemstvos in the second half of the 1860s - 1870s. was aimed at depriving him of all independence. Governors received the right to refuse confirmation to office of any person elected by the zemstvo; even greater rights were given to them in relation to “employees” - zemstvo doctors, teachers, statisticians: at the slightest provocation they were not only expelled from the zemstvo, but also expelled outside the province. In addition, the governor became the censor of all printed publications zemstvos - reports, journals of meetings, statistical studies. The central and local authorities purposefully stifled any initiative of the zemstvos, radically stopped any attempt by them to independent activity. conflict situations the government did not hesitate to dissolve zemstvo assemblies, exile their members and take other punitive measures.

As a result, instead of moving forward towards representative government, the authorities stubbornly moved backward, trying to include zemstvo bodies into the bureaucratic system. This constrained the activities of the zemstvos and undermined their authority. Nevertheless, the zemstvos managed to achieve serious success in their specific work, especially in the field of public education and medicine. But they were never destined to become full-fledged bodies of self-government and serve as the basis for the construction of a constitutional system.

On similar grounds, the City Regulations (a law on the reform of city government) were published in 1870. Issues of improvement (lighting, heating, water supply, cleaning, transport, construction of city passages, embankments, bridges, etc.), as well as the management of school, medical and charitable affairs, and care for the development of trade and industry were subject to the trusteeship of city councils and councils. The City Duma was charged with mandatory expenses for maintaining the fire department, police, prisons, and barracks (these expenses absorbed from 20 to 60% of the city budget). The city regulations eliminated the class principle in the formation of city self-government bodies, replacing it with a property qualification. Males who have reached 25 years of age participated in the elections to the city duma in three electoral congresses (curias) (small, medium and large taxpayers) with equal total amounts of payments of city taxes. Each curia elected 1/3 of the City Duma. Along with private individuals, departments, companies, monasteries, etc., who paid fees to the city budget, received the right to vote. Workers who did not pay taxes to the city did not participate in the elections. The number of dumas was established taking into account the population from 30 to 72 vowels, in Moscow - 180, in St. Petersburg - 250. The mayor, his comrade (deputy) and the council were elected by the duma. The mayor headed both the Duma and the Council, coordinating their activities. The body supervising compliance with the law in the activities of city government was the Provincial Presence for City Affairs (chaired by the governor).

Within their competence, City Dumas had relative independence and autonomy. They spent great job for the improvement and development of cities, but in the social movement they were not as noticeable as zemstvos. This was explained by the long-standing political inertia of the merchant and business class.

Judicial reform

In 1864, a judicial reform was carried out, radically transforming the structure of the Russian court and the entire legal process. The old courts existed without any significant changes since the time of Catherine II, although the need for judicial reform was recognized even by Alexander I. The main defects of the old judicial system were estate (each estate had its own court and its own laws), complete subordination to the administration and closedness trial(which opened up unprecedented opportunities for abuse and lawlessness). The defendant was not always informed of all the grounds on which the charges brought against him were based. The verdict was made based on the totality of the system of formal evidence, and not on the internal conviction of the judge. The judges themselves often had not only no legal education, but none at all.

It was possible to take up the reform only after the abolition of serfdom, which forced the abandonment of the principle of class and the change of the conservative Minister of Justice, Count. V.N. Panina. The author of the judicial reform was a long-time supporter of changes in this area, the State Secretary of the State Council (one of the few who spoke in the State Council in 1861 for the approval of the peasant reform) Sergei Ivanovich Zarudny. In 1862, the emperor approved the main provisions of the judicial reform developed by him: 1) the absence of class of the court, 2) equality of all citizens before the law, 3) complete independence of the court from the administration (which was guaranteed by the irremovability of judges), 4) careful selection of judicial personnel and their sufficient number material support.

The old class courts were abolished. Instead, a world court and a crown court were created - two systems independent from each other, which were united only by subordination to one higher judicial authority- To the Senate. A magistrate's court with a simplified procedure was introduced in counties to deal with cases of minor offenses and civil cases with a minor claim (for the first time this category of cases was separated from the general mass). More serious cases were dealt with in the crown court, which had two instances: the district court and the trial chamber. In case of violation of the legal order of judicial proceedings, the decisions of these bodies could be appealed to the Senate.

From the old courts, which conducted business in a purely bureaucratic manner, the new ones differed primarily in that they were public, i.e. open to the public and press. In addition, the judicial procedure was based on an adversarial process, during which the charge was formulated, substantiated and supported by the prosecutor, and the interests of the defendant were defended by a lawyer from among the sworn lawyers. The prosecutor and lawyer had to find out all the circumstances of the case, questioning witnesses, analyzing physical evidence, etc. After hearing the judicial debate, the jury (12 people), chosen by lot from representatives of all classes, made their verdict on the case (“guilty”, “innocent”, “guilty, but deserves leniency”). Based on the verdict, the crown court (represented by the chairman and two members of the court) passed a sentence. Only in case of an obvious violation of procedural norms (failure to hear one of the parties by the court, failure to call witnesses, etc.) could the parties, by filing a cassation appeal, transfer the case (civil - from the judicial chamber, criminal - from the district court) to the Senate, which, in the event confirmation of violations, transferred the case without consideration to another court, or to the same court, but with a different composition. A feature of the reform was that both the investigators who prepared the case for trial and the judges who led the entire judicial procedure, although appointed by the government, were irremovable for the entire term of their powers. In other words, as a result of the reform it was supposed to create a court that was as independent as possible and protect it from outside influences, primarily from pressure from the administration. At the same time, cases of state and some judicial crimes, as well as cases of the press, were removed from the jurisdiction of the jury.

The World Court, whose task was to provide the Russian people with a “quick, just and merciful” court, consisted of one person. The justice of the peace was elected by zemstvo assemblies or city dumas for three years. The government could not by its own power remove him from office (as well as the judges of the district crown court). The task of the magistrate's court was to reconcile the guilty, and if the parties were unwilling, the judge was given considerable scope in imposing punishment - depending not on any external formal data, but on his inner conviction. The introduction of magistrates' courts significantly relieved the crown courts of the mass of small cases.

Yet the judicial reform of 1864 remained unfinished. To resolve conflicts among the peasantry, the estate volost court was retained. This was partly due to the fact that peasants legal concepts were very different from the general civilian ones. A magistrate with a “Code of Laws” would often be powerless to judge the peasants. The volost court, consisting of peasants, judged on the basis of the customs existing in the area. But he was too exposed to influence from the wealthy upper classes of the village and all kinds of authorities. The volost court and the magistrate had the right to impose corporal punishment. This shameful phenomenon existed in Russia until 1904. There was a separate church court for the clergy (for specifically church matters).

In addition, soon after the start of the implementation of judicial reform, largely under the influence of the unprecedented scale of terrorism, the government began to subordinate the courts to the dominant bureaucratic system. In the second half of the 1860s - 1870s, publicity was significantly limited court hearings and their coverage in the press; The dependence of judicial officials on the local administration increased: they were ordered to unquestioningly “obey the legal requirements” of the provincial authorities. The principle of irremovability was also undermined: instead of investigators, “acting” investigators were increasingly appointed, to whom the principle of irremovability did not apply. Innovations relating to political cases were especially characteristic : the investigation in these cases began to be conducted not by investigators, but by gendarmes; legal proceedings were carried out not by jury trials, but by the Special Presence of the Governing Senate created specifically for this purpose. Since the late 1870s, a significant part of political cases began to be tried by military courts.

And yet, one can without hesitation admit that judicial reform was the most radical and consistent of all the Great Reforms of the 1860s.

Military reforms

In 1861, General Dmitry Alekseevich Milyutin was appointed Minister of War. Taking into account the lessons of the Crimean War, he spent the 1860s - I half. 1870s a number of military reforms. One of the main objectives of military reforms was to reduce the size of the army in peacetime and create the opportunity to significantly increase it in war time. This was achieved by reducing the non-combatant element (non-combatant, local and auxiliary troops) and introducing in 1874 (under the influence of the successful actions of the Prussian army in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870 - 1871) universal conscription, replacing the pre-reform conscription. Military service extended to the entire male population, aged 21-40, without distinction of class. For ground forces, a 6-year period of active service and 9 years in reserve was established; for the navy - 7 years of active service and 3 years in reserve. Then those liable for military service were transferred as warriors to the State Militia, where those exempt from conscription were also enrolled. In peacetime, no more than 25 - 30% of the total was taken into active service. total number conscripts. A significant part of conscripts were exempted from service due to family benefits (the only son of their parents, the only breadwinner in the family, etc.), due to physical unfitness, or due to their occupation (doctors, veterinarians, pharmacists, educators and teachers); the rest drew lots. Representatives of the peoples of the North and Central Asia, some peoples of the Caucasus, the Urals and Siberia (Muslims) were not subject to conscription. On special conditions Cossacks underwent military service. Service life was shortened depending on education. If the person who received the education entered active service voluntarily (as a volunteer), then the service life was further shortened by another half. Under this condition, conscripts who had a secondary education served only seven months, and higher education - three. These benefits became an additional incentive for the spread of education. During the Milyutin reforms, the conditions of service for the lower ranks (soldiers) were significantly changed: corporal punishment was abolished (punishment with rods was reserved only for the category of “fine”); improved food, uniforms and barracks; Strict measures have been taken to stop beatings of soldiers; Systematic literacy training for soldiers was introduced (in company schools). The abolition of conscription, along with the abolition of serfdom, significantly increased the popularity of Alexander II among the peasantry.

At the same time, a harmonious, strictly centralized structure was created to streamline the military command system. In 1862 - 1864 Russia was divided into 15 military districts, directly subordinate to the War Ministry. Established in 1865 Main Headquarters- the central authority for command and control of troops. Transformations in the sphere of military education were also of serious importance: instead of closed cadet corps, military gymnasiums were established, similar in program to high school(gymnasiums) and opened the way to any higher educational institution. Those who wished to continue their military education entered the institutions established in the 1860s. specialized cadet schools - artillery, cavalry, military engineering. An important feature of these schools was their all-class status, which opened access to the officer corps to persons of non-noble origin. Higher military education was provided by the Academy of the General Staff. artillery, military medical, naval, etc. The army was rearmed (the first rifled breech-loading guns, Berdan rifles, etc.).

Military reforms met with strong opposition from conservative circles of the generals and society; The main opponent of the reforms was Field Marshal Prince. A.I. Baryatinsky. Military “authorities” criticized the reforms for their bureaucratic nature, diminishing the role of the command staff, and overthrowing the centuries-old foundations of the Russian army.

Results and significance of the reforms of the 1860s - 1870s.

The reforms of the 60-70s are a major phenomenon in the history of Russia. New, modern bodies of self-government and courts contributed to the growth of the country's productive forces, the development of civic consciousness of the population, the spread of education, and the improvement of the quality of life. Russia joined the pan-European process of creating advanced, civilized forms of statehood based on the initiative of the population and its expression of will. But these were only the first steps. Remnants of serfdom were strong in local government, and many noble privileges remained intact. The reforms of the 60-70s did not affect the upper levels of power. The autocracy and police system inherited from past eras were preserved.

wiki.304.ru / History of Russia. Dmitry Alkhazashvili.

Liberal reforms of the 60-70s

In the early 60s, the need became obviousthe possibility of introducing local self-government, whichthe liberal public declared: the government could not raise the goodeconomy of the province. 1st of January 1864 was accepted law on local government, establishedfor management of economic affairs: construction construction and maintenance of local roads, schools, hospitals prostrate, almshouses, etc.

The administrative bodies of zemstvos were gu-Bernese and district zemstvo meetings, fulfilllocal - provincial and district Zemstvo administrations. For elections of deputies - vowels- the district zemstvo assembly convened 3 voters nal congress: large landowners, urbanowners and peasants. District zemstvosthe meetings elected members of the provincial zemstvoth meeting. Zemstvo assemblies were dominated by noble landowners.

With the advent of the zemstvo, the balance of forces in the province began to change: a “third element” arose, ascalled zemstvo doctors, teachers, agronomists,tistics. Zemstvos slowly but surely raisedlocal economy, improved the life of the village, developededucation and health care were promoted. Soon the earthcompanies have ceased to be purely economic organizationsnizations; The emergence of the zemstvo lye is associated with them. liberalism, dreaming of all-Russian electionsorderly power.

In 1870 it was carried out reform of city government. Elections to the Duma were held in three electoral congresses: small, medium and largeny taxpayers. (Workers did not pay taxesThey didn’t even participate in the elections.) City mayor And government were elected by the Duma. City authoritiesself-government successfully organizedher city life, urban development, but in generalThey participated weakly in the national movement.

In 1864, at the insistence of the public, there was carried out judicial reform. The court in Russia has becomeclassless, public, competitive, independenta message from the administration. Central linkthe new judicial system became district Court. The prosecution was supported by the prosecutor, the interests ofThe defendant was defended by a defense lawyer. The jury was seated givers, 12 people, having listened to the judicial debate, rendered a verdict (“guilty”, “innocent”, “vi-novel, but deserves leniency"). Based onBased on the verdict, the court pronounced a sentence. Such a mouth-the swarm of the court provided the greatest guaranteesfrom judicial errors.

Analysis of minor criminal and civil cases was studying world judge, elected by the zemstvo sob- raniy or the city duma for 3 years. Ruler- the government could not by its own power remove from office ties to a magistrate or district court judge.

Judicial reform was one of the mostsubsequent transformations of the 60-70s, but still it remained unfinished: there was nothe Senate was reformed to deal with small con-conflicts among the peasantry remained classvolost court, which had the right to award forest punishments (until 1904).

A number of important military reforms conducted by D. A. Mi-Lutin, appointed Minister of War in 1861 The army was rearmed according to modern standardsexpectations. At the final stage it was necessarythere will be a transition from recruitment to general militaryIndian duty. The conservative part of the general population has been blocking this for a number of years.undertaking; the turning point in the course of affairs was brought about by the Franco-Prussian Russian War of 1870-1871: contemporaries were struck by the speed of mobilization of the Prussian army. On January 1, 1874, a law was passed abolishing the rec- rutchina and spreading military obligations ity for men of all classes who have reached 20 years of age and fit for health. Benefits based on service lifebecame an additional incentive to receiveeducation. The reform accelerated the breakdown of classth building; the abolition of recruitment increased the popularity Alexandra's II among the peasantry.

Reforms 60-70s, eliminating a number of experiences kov, creating modern self-government bodiesand ships, contributed to the development of the country, the growthcivic consciousness of the population. These were only the first steps: the upper levels of power were not affected by the reform.