Word-building and formative morphemes. Word-forming morphemes: prefix, suffix
Formative morphemes serve to form word forms and are divided into endings and formative suffixes.
Formative morphemes, like other types of morphemes, necessarily have meaning. But these are meanings of a different kind than those of roots or word-forming morphemes: endings and formative suffixes express grammatical meanings of words– abstract meanings abstracted from the lexical meanings of words (gender, person, number, case, mood, tense, degrees of comparison, etc.).
Endings and formative suffixes that differ in the nature of the grammatical meaning they express
Ending
Ending new student), control ( letter to brotherI'm coming, you're coming).
Ending- a formative morpheme that expresses the grammatical meanings of gender, person, number and case (at least one of them!) and serves to connect words in phrases and sentences, that is, it is a means of agreement ( new student), control ( letter to brother) or connection between the subject and the predicate ( I'm coming, you're coming).
Only inflected words have endings. Function words, adverbs, unchangeable nouns and adjectives have no endings. Modified words do not have endings in those grammatical forms that lack the specified grammatical meanings (gender, person, number, case), that is, the infinitive and gerunds.
Some compound nouns and compound numerals have multiple endings. This can be easily seen by changing these words: tr-i-st-a, tr-yoh-sot-Ø, sofa-bed-Ø, sofa-a-bed-i.
The ending may be null. It stands out in the word being modified if there is a certain grammatical meaning, but it is not materially expressed. Zero ending- this is a significant absence of an ending, an absence that carries certain information about the form in which the word appears. So, the ending - A in the shape of table shows that this word is in genitive case, -at V table-at points to dative. The absence of an ending in the form table indicates that it is nominative or accusative, that is, it carries information, it is significant. It is in such cases that the word stands out null ending.
Words with a zero ending should not be confused with words that do not and cannot have endings - unchangeable words. Only inflected words can have a zero ending, that is, words that have non-zero endings in other forms.
Null endings are widely represented in the language and are found in nouns, adjectives and verbs in the following positions:
1) masculine nouns of the 2nd declension in I. p. (V. p.) singular: boy - I. p., table - I. / V. p.;
2) nouns female 3 declensions in I. p. (V. p.) singular: night;
3) nouns of all genders in the Russian plural: countries, soldiers, swamps.
But non-zero endings can also be represented in this position: noch-ey – articles – . The correct parsing of such words is achieved by declension of the word. If the sound [th’] disappears during declination, then it belongs to the ending: noch-ey, noch-ami. If [th'] can be traced in all cases, then it refers to the basis: articles - become [y'-a] - become [y'-a]mi. As we see, in these forms the sound [й’] is not expressed at the letter level, but is “hidden” in the iotated vowel. In this case, it is necessary to identify and designate this sound. In order not to clutter the writing with transcription brackets, in linguistics it is customary to denote the sound [th’], “hidden” in an iotized vowel letter, using j, without brackets, entered in the right place: articles.
A fairly common mistake is to determine the endings of words ending in -ia, -ie, -ie. Infidel is the impression that these sound complexes are the endings. Two-letter endings in the initial form are presented only in those nouns that are substantivized adjectives or participles. Let's compare:
genius, genius, genius - plots, plots, plots
armyj-ya, armyj-ey – stol-aya, stol-oh, etc.
4) adjectives in short form masculine singular: handsome, smart;
5) possessive adjectives in I p. (V. p.) singular; Despite the external similarity of declension, qualitative and possessive have different morphemic structure in the indicated cases:
units number
I. p. blue fox-Ø
R. p. sin-his foxj-his
D. p. sin-him foxj-mu
V.p. =i. p./v. P.
T. p. sin-im lisj-im
P. p. sin-em lisj-em.
This morphemic structure of possessive adjectives is easy to understand if we consider that possessive adjectives denote a sign of belonging to a person or animal and are always derivative, formed using derivational suffixes -in-, -ov-, -ij– from nouns: mom → mom-in-Ø, fox → fox-ii-Ø. In indirect cases this possessive suffix is th– is realized in [j], which is “hidden” in the iotated vowel;
6) verb in the masculine singular form in the past tense indicative mood and in the conditional mood: dela-l– (would) – cf.: dela-l-a, dela-l-i;
7) a verb in the imperative mood, where the zero ending expresses the meaning of the singular: pish-i-, pish-i-te;
8) in short participles zero ending, same as short adjectives, expresses the meaning of the masculine singular: read-n-Ø.
Classification of morphemes by meaning, PV structure and place relative to the root
Morphemes are divided into roots and affixes.
Root: LZ, carrier of the core of LZ, the main part of the word. Affix: LZ + GZ, formation of new words, introduction of additional shades; an expression of a syntactic connection, an indication of the grammatical class of words. The root is an obligatory part of the word. Roots can be used either independently or in combination with affixes. There are roots in the Russian language:
1. with a subject meaning (book),
2. with procedural meaning (jump),
3. with the meaning of a non-procedural feature (acute),
4. with quantitative value (sixth).
There are also suppletive roots: I - we, person - people; and homonymous roots: conduct – see off
Affixes – service morphemes attached to the root and used to express grammatical or word-formation meanings.
Derivational (word-formative): at-, -ov-
Grammatical: -l
Affixal morphemes participate in two language processes: form formation and word formation. Therefore, according to function and meaning, formative (or inflectional) and word-formative morphemes are distinguished.
Formative morphemes serve to form word forms and are therefore distinguishers of word forms and grammatical meanings. Thus, inflections of nouns (dream-a, dream-e, dreams-y), adjectives (airy, airy, airy) are expressive of the grammatical meanings of gender, case and number.
Derivative morphemes are used to form words. Based on their place in a word, they are divided into prefixes (otherwise known as prefixes), suffixes, postfixes, and interfixes.
Formal-structural affixes organize the word; formal-classifying indicate a grammatical category.
Segmental affixes are represented by a sound segment that has a certain length (continuous and intermittent).
Non-segmental: do not have an independent sound segment.
All roots are segmental morphemes.
Three types of morphemes:
materially expressed morphemes
zero, only affixes
suppletive.
Materially expressed morphemes sound – white
Zero - at the end of the 19th century, academician Fortunatov gave a definition. This is a materially unexpressed morpheme, which stands out when comparing the forms of the word: forest - forest-forest.
Null morphemes are significant absences. The meaning is there, but the form is missing. Adjectives in the short form of the nominative case have a singular number - quiet, past tense verbs have singular husband gender – sang, possessive adj husband kind – avian, for pronouns – my, my, mine and other parts of speech. IN Lately began to highlight zero suffixes: shadowǾ□←dark.
GC can be semanticized.
Genus is a classifying category. In English, gender is a semantized category (used only in animate nouns). Declension indicator, connection with adjective and verb, replacement with the corresponding pronoun.
For adjectives, gender is a formative, not a classifying category.
In this chapter:
§1. Morpheme
Morpheme- this is the minimum significant part words. It is not divided into smaller meaningful parts. Words are built from morphemes, and the meanings of the morphemes are components of the overall meaning of the word.
Morphemes are divided into word-forming and inflectional (formative).
Derivative morphemes serve to form words and help express the lexical meaning of a word.
Inflectional (formative) morphemes are needed to form the forms of inflected words and express the grammatical meaning of words.
§2. Types of word-forming morphemes
Derivative morphemes include root, prefix, suffix and interfix.
Root- the main morpheme, common to related words and expressing the main lexical meaning of the word.
Remember:
Words without a root are impossible in the Russian language.
In words house, house ik, looking for a home, ova's house, house earpiece, homesteading, house sharpness there is a root house. In the examples of compound words given, this is the first of two roots. As can be seen from the example, there can be several roots in a word.
In the Russian language there are words consisting only of roots. These are, first of all, service words: prepositions: By, To, above, unions: And, But, If, interjections: Oh, Oh, Hello, some adverbs: Very, there, as well as unchangeable nouns: coffee, metro and adjectives: beige, khaki
Console is a morpheme that occupies a position in a word before the root, for example with run, when going, rethink. There can be several prefixes, like roots, in a word: demon with mental, demon is powerful.
Remember:
A word cannot consist only of a prefix.
Suffix- a morpheme that occupies a position after the root in a word, for example human n y, shore oh oh. Many Russian words have not one, but several suffixes: nasil stvenn about, America an from irova nn y.
Remember:
A word cannot consist only of a suffix.
There are several special features in the system of morphemes interfix.
Interfixes in the Russian language include letters O
And e
as connecting vowels in complex words. Interfixes participate in word formation, but do not add their meaning: heat O move, steam O WHO, myself O var.
§3. Types of formative morphemes
Formative morphemes include, first of all, endings and suffixes.
Ending is a morpheme that serves to change a word, form its forms and express meanings: number, gender, case, person. Endings are needed to connect words in a sentence.
Only inflected words have endings. Examples:
Listening yu, listening, listening, listening, listening, listening
Ch. present tense 1st sp., forms 1st, 2nd and 3rd person units. and plural h.
dacha a, dacha, dacha, dacha, dacha, about the dacha
noun 1st class, female, units. h., name, gen., dat., wine., tv., p. pad.
Zero ending
The ending may be zero, i.e. not expressed, not represented, but such an ending also carries information about the grammatical meaning.
Example: table - zero ending (noun m.r., 2nd sc., im.=win.fall), read - zero ending (ch. past tense, m.r., plural) .
Remember:
These words and these forms have zero endings:
- for nouns of the 2nd and 3rd classes. in the form of I.p. and V.p. in singular, if their forms coincide, like inanimate nouns: house, horse, mother, night
- for nouns of all declensions in the form R.p. in plural: cars, windows, soldiers, armies
- for short adjectives in the singular form. m.r.: healthy, glad, happy
- for verbs in the indicative mood, past. time, unit, m.r.: read, wrote, considered
- for verbs in the form of the conditional mood, singular, m.r.: would read, write, count would
- at verbs in forms imperative mood singular: write, read, count
- in short passive participles in unit form m.r.: written, read
Do not confuse:
Zero ending and no ending for unchangeable words. This blunder, common during analysis.
Formative suffixes- these are morphemes that appear in a word after the root and serve to form the forms of the word. Examples: indefinite verb suffix -th, -ty: chita t, going you, past tense suffix -l: go l, imperative -And: review And, degrees of comparison of adjectives and adverbs -e:tish e.
We discuss the problem of interpretation.
Formative suffixes or endings?
Some authors consider formative suffixes as endings. Their logic is as follows: if a morpheme is used to form new words, it is a suffix, and if with the help of a morpheme they are formed different shapes of the same word, then these are endings. By this logic, it turns out that the past tense indicator -l is an ending, and so is the infinitive indicator. After all be in love And I loved- this is the same word, only its forms are different.
I recommend that children not be surprised when they encounter a new interpretation. There is nothing to be done; there are issues on which researchers have not yet come to an agreement. The main thing is to be consistent and always comment on controversial phenomena in the same way.
Test of strength
Check your understanding of this chapter.
Final test
What is the minimum significant part of a word?
- Morpheme
Is the meaning of a morpheme a component of the overall meaning of a word?
What morphemes serve to form words and help express the lexical meaning of a word?
- Derivational
- Formative (inflectional)
What morpheme is common to related words and expresses the main lexical meaning of the word?
- Root
- Console
- Suffix
Can a word consist only of a prefix?
Can a word consist of only a suffix?
What morpheme is used to express meanings of person, gender, number, case?
- Suffix
- Ending
Why are interfixes needed?
- For word formation
- To pass a new value
- For shaping
What morpheme is used to connect words in a sentence?
- Root
- Suffix
- Ending
Do verbs have an ending in the masculine singular form?
Right answers:
- Morpheme
- Derivational
- Root
- Ending
- For word formation
- Ending
In contact with
Morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of language that contains lexical or grammatical meaning. Words are made up of morphemes.
Morphemes are divided into root And official.
Root- This a common part related words.
Let's compare the words: Water - to drive; drive - driving. In the first pair of words the root VOD. However, the words Not are the same root, since the lexical meaning of the root is different. This homonymous roots.
The second pair features various options of the same root, associated with the historical alternation of consonants. These are the same root words: driving is the ability to drive.
The root is an obligatory morpheme present in every word.
Service morphemes are called affixes, which in Latin means attached.
There are 2 classifications of affixes:
1) location in relation to the root;
2) by function.
Affixes are divided into:
consoles(prefixes) – come before the root (suburb),
suffixes– stand after the root before the ending or at the end of words (school, quickly);
postfixes– stand after an ending or a formative suffix (washed, some);
connecting vowels(interfixes) – stand between roots in compound words (dried fruits, southwest);
ending– stands at the end of words or before a postfix (washed, washed – ending A).
The meaning of affixes can be word-forming And inflectional - formative.
Word-forming affixes are intended to form new words and have lexical meaning.
These include:
a) prefixes - city - suburb (a place near the city);
b) suffixes school - schoolboy (school student);
c) postfixes - wash – wash (wash yourself), which – some (unknown which);
d) connecting vowels that perform a connecting function: dry fruits - dried fruits.
Formative morphemes serve for education various forms the same word and have a grammatical meaning.
The main formative morpheme in the Russian language is ending.
Ending is an inflectable morpheme that serves to connect words in a sentence. The ending may contain several grammatical meanings. So it exists in form. "table" zero ending indicates husband. kind, units number, im. pad, and in the form of “tables” ending. AH indicates plural. number of sentences case
Immutable words have no endings. Let's compare: window - windows; coat.
Some forms of adjectives and verbs are formed using formative suffixes.
Form-building suf. attached – these are suf.degrees of comparison: comparative degree – EE, E, SHE(strong - strong her; sweet - sweet e; thin - thinner e); superlatives – eish, aish, sh(strongest th, the finest th, higher th).
Some forms of verbs are formed using suffixes: infinitive TH, TI(read, carry); past tense – L, zero suffix (carried, carried); imperative - AND, zero suffix (run, throw).
The plural form in the imperative mood is formed using formative postfix THOSE(run, throw).
In each word you can identify a stem - a part of the word with lexical meaning. Therefore, the basis does not include formative suffixes and postfixes. For example, the basis of the word “washed” is “washed”; the ending A and the past tense suffix L are not included in the stem.
The basics can be divided into non-derivatives And derivatives.
Non-derivatives are not derived from the stems of other words and are equal to the root: school.
Derivatives are derived from other stems and include word-forming morphemes: school - located at school.
Words are divided into stems and formative morphemes (inflections). The stem is a mandatory element of the morphemic structure of a word, expressing its lexical meaning. The stem is the part of the word without inflections. The stem can consist of only the root (pe-t) or from the root and affixes (sing-t).
Formative morphemes (inflections) serve to form the forms of a word and are divided into endings and formative suffixes. Formative morphemes express the grammatical meanings of a word - abstract meanings abstracted from the lexical meanings of words and having a typified formal expression (gender, person, number, case, mood, tense, degrees of comparison, etc.). The difference between endings and formative suffixes lies in the nature of the grammatical meaning they express and their role in the syntactic connection of words in a sentence (see further sections “Ending”, “Formative suffix”).
Modified words can have only the ending (part-a, sto-it), only the form-building suffix (stand-t, krasiv-ee) or both the ending and the form-building suffix (stoya-l-a, krasiv-eysh-ii) . In the latter case, the formative suffix comes before the ending.
Usually inflections are located at the end of a word, but in some words the stem can be interrupted by inflections. These are the basics of verb forms containing the derivational postfix -sya/-s (uch-l-a-s), indefinite pronouns containing the postfixes -to, -or, -something (someone), of which complex nouns (sofa- a-bed-i) and numerals (five-and-ten-i). Such bases are called intermittent.
In addition to endings and formative suffixes, non-constant grammatical features of words can be conveyed by morphemes of other types: formative postfixes, formative prefixes and morphemes, traditionally designated by the term “formative particles”.
Formative postfixes are usually considered to be the morpheme -sya with the meaning of the passive voice, which stands out both in conjugated verbal forms that are not studied from this point of view in school grammar (a house is being built by workers), and in the studied participles (a house being built by workers), and morpheme - those in the forms of the 1st l. pl. h. (let's go).
Form-building prefixes are the prefixes по- and наи-, optionally used in the formation of forms of degrees of comparison of an adjective, and по-, also adverbs (po-higher, nai-highest).
A number of forms of the verb are formed with the help of auxiliary components would, let, let (read, let him read), which are part of the verb form, expressing unstable signs of mood, and, therefore, are inflections in their function.
Inflected words often have several different modifications of the stem. Thus, in different forms of the noun mother the bases mat "- and mater" are represented, while the adjective high has the bases vysok-, vysoč- (vysoč-aysh-iy) and vysh- (vysh-e). Almost all verbs have several modifications of the stem.
Historically, most verbs have two modifications of the stem - the infinitive and the present tense (for verbs of the perfect form - the future). In addition to them, we can sometimes talk about a separate basis of the past tense.
To highlight the basis of the infinitive, you need to separate the formative suffix of the infinitive: write, gnaw, weave, take care (or take care - #).
To isolate the present/simple future tense stem, one must separate the personal ending from the present/simple future tense form; It is preferable to use the 3rd person plural form (since this stem itself can have different forms in different forms): pish-ut, raboj-ut, lech-at.
To highlight the basis of the past tense, it is necessary to discard the formative suffix of the past tense -l- or - # - and the ending from the form of the past tense; It is preferable to use any form except the male form. kind of units number, since it is in it that the zero suffix can be represented, which can complicate the analysis: nes-l-a, pisa-l-a.
Most verbs have two different types bases: one is the base of the present / simple future, and the other is the base of the infinitive, as well as the past tense: read- and read-, draw- and draw-, run- and run-, talk- and talk-. There are verbs that have the same stems of the present / simple future and the infinitive: (id-ut, id-ti), and they are contrasted with the stem of the past tense (sh-l-a).
There are verbs in which all three stems are different: ter-t, ter-l-a, tr-ut; get wet, get wet, get wet.
There are verbs in which all forms are formed from the same stem: nes-ti, nes-l-a, nes-ut; take it, take it, take it.
Different verb forms are formed from different bases. From the stem of the infinitive, in addition to the indefinite form, personal and participial forms of the past tense (if the verb does not have another past tense stem) and the conditional mood are formed.
From the stem of the present / simple future tense, in addition to the personal and participial forms of the present tense, forms of the imperative mood are formed.
infinitive stem past. vr. (personal and participle forms), conditional incl.
basis present / bud. vr. present vr. (personal and parable forms) / future vr. (personal), command. incl.
Some verbs have different stems due to alternations:
pisa - pisa-l (would) - pisa-vsh-y
pish-u - pish-ush-y - pish-i.
Other verb stems differ in the truncation or extension represented in the present/simple future tense stem:
read - read-l (would) - read-nn-y
read - read - read - read;
talk-t - talk-l (would) - talk-vsh-y
talk-y - talk-yash-y - talk-i.
Single verbs have suppletive stems: id-ti - she-l.