Table on the topic of Catherine II’s internal policy. Abstract: Domestic and foreign policy of Catherine II

Imbued with some of the ideas of Montesquieu and other enlighteners, the empress pursued a policy of strengthening absolutism, strengthening the bureaucratic apparatus, unified the management system and centralized the state. However, thoughts about freedom and equality of all people were unacceptable, which led to a deterioration in the position of the serfs and the endowment of the nobility with even greater privileges, although in words she strove to “concern for the welfare of all subjects.”
Transformation of the Senate.
As a result of 1763, the Senate was transformed and its powers were reduced. From that time on, the Senate became the highest court and exercised control over the activities of the state apparatus. From now on, only the empress had legislative power. The transformations also affected the structure of the Senate - it was divided into 6 departments, each of which was in charge of a separate area of ​​government affairs.
Provincial reform .
As a reaction to the Peasant War (1773 - 75), a decision was made to change the administrative division of the state: provinces were abolished, the territory was divided into, which, in turn, were divided into counties. The positions of governor-general (to whom several provinces were subordinate), governor (head of the province, subordinate to the empress), and captain of the police chief (head of the district) were introduced. A system of administrative management was also created - provincial boards, orders of public charity, courts for nobles and peasants, magistrates.
At this time, 216 new cities were formed from large settlements, which received this status by order of Catherine II. In general, the city became a separate administrative unit with a mayor at its head, to whom private bailiffs and neighborhood supervisors were subordinate.
Stacked commission.
The established commission was supposed to systematize laws, clarify the needs of various classes and carry out reforms in accordance with them. It included representatives of the nobility and townspeople, as well as rural population and Orthodox clergy. The decision to convene the commission was made in 1776; its work lasted a year and a half, after which it was dissolved.
Economic policy .
The economy and trade under Catherine II developed extensively. State regulation of prices, in particular for salt, was introduced, new credit institutions appeared, and the list of banking operations expanded. Under Catherine, they began printing banknotes - paper money.
We exported raw materials and semi-finished products; there were no finished products in the export volume at all. Industrial products were imported into the Russian Empire, and the volume of imports exceeded domestic production several times.
Only two industries developed rapidly, producing export products- linen and cast iron, however, they also increased their volumes not through the use of new technologies, but through an increase in the number of employees.
A similar situation existed in agriculture, where extensive methods also prevailed.
Corruption
Bribery flourished during Catherine's reign, largely due to the empress's lenient attitude towards both her favorites and officials who took bribes. At the same time, official expenses for the maintenance of officials were constantly increasing, public funds were spent on gifts to favorites and on bribing officials of other states - for example, Poland, to obtain consent to the divisions of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.
Health and education.
On state level the fight against epidemics was introduced, mandatory vaccination against smallpox, psychiatric hospitals and hospitals were opened for treatment venereal diseases.
Since 1768, the creation of a network of schools in cities began, schools and various institutes of women's education began to open (Educational Society for Noble Maidens, Smolny Institute). The role of the Academy of Sciences has increased, unfortunately, not due to domestic personnel, but due to the invitation of scientists from abroad. However, there was a shortage in universities and academies, and the students’ knowledge was weak.
National politics .
The annexation of new territories entailed expansion national composition, and a special administrative, tax and economic regime was introduced for each nationality: the Pale of Settlement for Jews, half taxes for Ukrainians and Belarusians, tax exemption for Germans. At the same time, the rights of the indigenous population were most violated.
Results .
By the end of the ruler's life, the country was in an economic and social crisis; the Russian nobility was dissatisfied with the infringement of their rights and asked to “register them as Germans”; administrative reform is also called short-sighted; Peasants' discontent resulted in the Peasants' War. Nevertheless, there were also achievements, because it was under her reign that the capital’s pedagogical schools, the Public Library in St. Petersburg, and the Smolny Institute of Noble Maidens were opened.

National: reunification with the Ukrainian and Belarusian lands that still remained under the rule of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.

First question was successfully resolved during Russian-Turkish wars of 1768-1774 and 1787-1791. Russia received new lands of the Black Sea region and part of the Azov lands. In 1783, Crimea was annexed to Russia, where Sevastopol, the base of the Black Sea Fleet, was founded.

The reunification of the Ukrainian and Belarusian lands with Russia, which once formed a single whole with Russia, occurred as a result of 3 divisions of Poland between Russia, Prussia and Austria in 1772, 1773 and 1792. Not only the Ukrainian (except Galicia) and Belarusian lands, but also Lithuania and Courland went to Russia.

Sweden tried to take advantage of the employment of Russian troops in the war with Turkey. In 1790, the Peace of Revel was concluded between Sweden and Russia without changing the borders. In 1783, the Treaty of Georgievsk was concluded, according to which Eastern Georgia placed itself under the protection of Russia. Russia's international authority and influence have increased sharply.

Assessment of the activities of Catherine II

Despite controversial events and processes on the board Catherine II, this was a time when the imperial government was trying to implement one of the most consistent, thoughtful and successful reform programs in Russian history. The foundations have been laid civil society in Russia. During her reign, the country's population increased from 12 to 16 million people, the number of manufactories increased from 600 to 1200. Russia transformed from a European to a world power.

Foreign policy of Russia in the 2nd half of the 18th century

In the 2nd half of the 18th century. formation was underway state entities and, as a consequence, changes in territories and consolidation of borders. Leading states sought to increase their possessions and expand their spheres of influence in the world. This was a good time for Russia to pursue an aggressive policy, since its main rivals in the international arena were in crisis: Sweden and Poland were weakened Northern War, Türkiye entered a period of decline. Under these conditions, Russia took an imperial-force approach in solving territorial problems.

In 1768 France, concerned about Russia's successes in Poland, provoked Turkey to declare war on Russia. Fighting unfolded on the territory of the Danube principalities, in the Crimea and Transcaucasia. The commander-in-chief of the Balkan Front, General P.A. Rumyantsev, using new tactics in the formation of infantry (square formation), won a brilliant victory over the Turks near Khotyn in 1769 and occupied all of Moldavia and Wallachia. In 1770, Rumyantsev beat the Turks in the battles of the Larga and Kagul rivers.

The Russian fleet under the command of G.A. Spiridonov and S.K. Craig, having rounded Europe, suddenly appeared in the Mediterranean Sea and in the Battle of Chesma Bay on June 25-26, 1770, almost completely destroyed the Turkish fleet. In 1771, Russian troops occupied Crimea. During military operations on land, the corps under the command of A.V. Suvorov achieved brilliant victories. In 1774, the Kuchuk-Kainardzhi peace treaty was concluded. Russia received the territory between the Dnieper and the Southern Bug, the Azov coast and the Kerch Strait. Türkiye recognized the independence of the Crimean Khanate and Russia's right to own a fleet.

In 1775, Russian troops occupied Zaporizhzhya Sich and, having resettled the Cossacks in Kuban, they ceased its existence.

In 1783 Catherine II annexed Crimea to Russia and concluded the Treaty of Georgievsk with Georgia, taking it under its protectorate and protection from Turkey.

In 1787 Türkiye, seeking to regain lost territories, declared war on Russia. The fate of this warrior was decided by the victories of Suvorov near Kinburn in 1787, at Focsani and Rymnik in 1789. In 1790, the main stronghold of the Turkish troops - the Izmail fortress - was taken. The successes of the ground operation were consolidated by the victories of the Russian fleet.

In 1791, the Treaty of Jassy was concluded, which confirmed the terms of the Kuchuk-Kainardzhi peace. A new border was established in the southwest along the Dniester River, in the Caucasus along the Kuban River. Türkiye has renounced its claims to Georgia.

Taking advantage of the difficult struggle between Russia and Turkey in 1788, Sweden attempted to seize possessions on the shores of the Baltic Sea. Having suffered a number of defeats on land and in naval battles, in 1790, Sweden signed the Treaty of Revel on the terms of maintaining borders.

The economic decline of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was caused by the weakness of the central government. Polish reformers were influenced by the French Revolution and introduced a new constitution in the Polish Sejm. Catherine II and the Prussian king Friedrich-Wilhelm decided to jointly fight the revolutionary “infection”. In 1793, Russian troops occupied Warsaw, Prussian troops occupied western provinces Poland.

In 1772, an agreement was concluded between Russia, Prussia and Austria on the division of Poland. Russia received part of Eastern Belarus. The second partition of Poland took place in 1793: all of Belarus and Right Bank Ukraine went to Russia.

In 1794, Polish patriots raised an uprising under the leadership of T. Kosciuszko, which was suppressed by Russian troops. The third partition of Poland occurs, as a result of which it ceases to exist as a state. The lands of Western Belarus, Western Ukraine, Livonia and Courland were annexed to Russia.

The acquisition of new territories significantly increased economic and human resources, and Russia's political weight increased. The population of Russia by 1796 reached 36 million, compared to 20 million people at the beginning of the reign of Catherine II (1762).

Domestic policy of Catherine II.

4. Liquidation of the Zaporozhye Sich. After the Provincial Reform led to equalization of rights between the Cossack atamans and the Russian nobility. That. There was no longer any need to maintain a special management system. In 1775, the Zaporozhye Sich was dissolved.

Catherine's foreign policy

Domestic policy of Catherine II
Imbued with some of the ideas of Montesquieu and other enlighteners, the empress pursued a policy of strengthening absolutism, strengthening the bureaucratic apparatus, unified the management system and centralized the state. However, thoughts about freedom and equality of all people were unacceptable to Catherine II, which led to a deterioration in the position of the serfs and the endowment of the nobility with even greater privileges, although in words she strove to “concern for the welfare of all subjects.”
Transformation of the Senate.
As a result of the reform of 1763, the Senate was transformed and its powers were reduced. From that time on, the Senate became the highest court and exercised control over the activities of the state apparatus. From now on, only the empress had legislative power. The transformations also affected the structure of the Senate - it was divided into 6 departments, each of which was in charge of a separate area of ​​government affairs.
Provincial reform.
As a reaction to the Peasant War (1773 - 75), a decision was made to change the administrative division of the state: the provinces were abolished, the territory was divided into provinces, which, in turn, were divided into counties. The positions of governor-general (to whom several provinces were subordinate), governor (head of the province, subordinate to the empress), and captain of the police chief (head of the district) were introduced. A system of administrative management was also created - provincial boards, orders of public charity, courts for nobles and peasants, magistrates.
At this time, 216 new cities were formed from large settlements, which received this status by order of Catherine II. In general, the city became a separate administrative unit with a mayor at its head, to whom private bailiffs and neighborhood supervisors were subordinate.
Stacked commission.
The established commission was supposed to systematize laws, clarify the needs of various classes and carry out reforms in accordance with them. It included representatives of the nobility and townspeople, as well as the rural population and the Orthodox clergy. The decision to convene the commission was made in 1776; its work lasted a year and a half, after which it was dissolved.
Economic policy.
The economy and trade under Catherine II developed extensively. State regulation of prices, in particular for salt, was introduced, new credit institutions appeared, and the list of banking operations expanded. Under Catherine, they began printing banknotes - paper money.
We exported raw materials and semi-finished products; there were no finished products in the export volume at all. Industrial products were imported into the Russian Empire, and the volume of imports exceeded domestic production several times.
Only two industries that produced export products developed rapidly - linen and cast iron, however, they also increased their volumes not through the use of new technologies, but through an increase in the number of employees.
A similar situation existed in agriculture, where extensive methods also prevailed.
Corruption
Bribery flourished during Catherine's reign, largely due to the empress's lenient attitude towards both her favorites and officials who took bribes. At the same time, official expenses for the maintenance of officials were constantly increasing, public funds were spent on gifts to favorites and on bribing officials of other states - for example, Poland, to obtain consent to the divisions of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.
Health and education.
The fight against epidemics was brought to the state level, compulsory vaccination against smallpox was introduced, psychiatric hospitals and hospitals for the treatment of sexually transmitted diseases were opened.
Since 1768, the creation of a network of schools in cities began, schools and various institutes of women's education began to open (Educational Society for Noble Maidens, Smolny Institute). The role of the Academy of Sciences has increased, unfortunately, not due to domestic personnel, but due to the invitation of scientists from abroad. However, there was a shortage in universities and academies, and the students’ knowledge was weak.
National policy.
The annexation of new territories entailed an expansion of the national composition of the Russian Empire, and a special administrative, tax and economic regime was introduced for each nationality: the Pale of Settlement for Jews, half taxes for Ukrainians and Belarusians, tax exemption for Germans. At the same time, the rights of the indigenous population were most violated.
Results.
By the end of the ruler's life, the country was in an economic and social crisis; the Russian nobility was dissatisfied with the infringement of their rights and asked to “register them as Germans”; administrative reform is also called short-sighted; Peasants' discontent resulted in the Peasants' War. Nevertheless, there were also achievements, because it was under her reign that the Hermitage, the capital's pedagogical schools, the Public Library in St. Petersburg, and the Smolny Institute of Noble Maidens were opened.

V. Eriksen "Equestrian portrait of Catherine the Great"

“Catherine made a double takeover: she took away power from her husband and did not transfer it to her son, the natural heir of his father” (V.O. Klyuchevsky).

Having thus ascended to the Russian throne, Catherine II began her reign by formulating the primary tasks for her activities:

1. The nation that is to be governed must be enlightened.
2. It is necessary to introduce good order in the state, support society and force it to comply with the laws.
3. It is necessary to establish a good and accurate police force in the state.
4. It is necessary to promote the flourishing of the state and make it abundant.
5. It is necessary to make the state formidable in itself and inspiring respect among its neighbors.

Let us now consider how Catherine II implemented these tasks.

The term “enlightened absolutism” is often used to characterize the domestic policy of Catherine II. Yes, under her rule the autocracy strengthened and the bureaucratic apparatus became stronger. But the ideas of Diderot and Voltaire that every person is born free, that all people are equal, that despotic forms of government should be destroyed - this did not correspond to its internal policy. Under Catherine, the situation of the peasants worsened, and the nobles received more and more privileges.

Domestic policy

Senate Conversion and Stalled Commission

According to the project statesman N.I. Panin in 1763 the Senate was transformed. It was divided into six departments: the first was headed by the Prosecutor General, who was in charge of state and political affairs in St. Petersburg, the second - judicial in St. Petersburg, the third - transport, medicine, sciences, education, art, the fourth - military-land and naval affairs, the fifth - state and political in Moscow and the sixth - the Moscow judicial department.

As for the Statutory Commission, it was created to systematize laws. But the meetings were held for only six months, after which the commission was dissolved. The main result of her activities was the approval of the title “Great” for the empress (others were also proposed: “The Wise One,” “Mother of the Fatherland” and others). Thus, she did not receive such a title as a result of merit - it was ordinary court flattery.

D. Levitsky "Portrait of Catherine II"

Provincial reform

In 1775, the “Institution for the management of the provinces of the All-Russian Empire” was adopted. Its essence was that three levels of administrative division were eliminated: province, province, district, and two were introduced: province and district. 50 provinces were formed (instead of 23). The provinces were divided into 10-12 districts. Governor General(governor) were subordinate to 2-3 provinces. He had administrative, financial and judicial powers. Governor ruled the province and reported directly to the emperor. Governors were appointed by the Senate. Treasury Chamber headed by the vice-governor, she dealt with finances in the province. Land management - provincial land surveyor. Executive body governor was the provincial board, which exercised general supervision over the activities of institutions and officials. Order of public charity supervised schools, hospitals and shelters, as well as class judicial institutions: Upper Zemstvo Court for nobles, Provincial magistrate, who considered litigation between townspeople, and Upper reprisal for the trial of state peasants. Criminal and Civil Chamber judged all classes; they were the highest judicial bodies in the provinces.

The head of the county was captain police officer, leader of the nobility, elected for three years.

Was created Conscientious court, called upon to reconcile those who argue and quarrel, he was classless. Supreme judicial authority the country becomes the Senate.

216 new cities were formed (mostly large rural settlements renamed cities). The population of the cities began to be called bourgeois and merchants. The city became the main administrative unit. It was headed by mayor, he was endowed with all rights and powers. Strict police control was introduced in cities. The city was divided into parts (districts) under supervision private bailiff, and the parts were divided into quarters controlled quarterly supervisor.

According to historians, provincial reform led to a significant increase in the cost of maintaining the bureaucratic apparatus.

Founding of Kuban and annexation of the Kalmyk Khanate

In 1771, Catherine II issued a decree liquidating the Kalmyk Khanate and annexing the Kalmyk state to Russia. At the office of the Astrakhan governor, a special Expedition of Kalmyk Affairs was established, which began to manage the affairs of the Kalmyks. But this annexation did not happen immediately: Catherine, from the 60s, consistently limited the khan’s power, until a conspiracy matured within the khanate to leave for their historical homeland - Dzungaria (a region of Central Asia in northwestern China. A region with a semi-desert and steppe landscape) . This turned out to be a great disaster for the people, who lost about 100 thousand people.

Other provincial reforms

The territory of Estonia and Livonia was divided into 2 provinces - Riga and Revel. Three provinces were created in Siberia: Tobolsk, Kolyvan and Irkutsk.

Economy

A state bank was established and the issue of paper money- banknotes.

State regulation of prices for salt was introduced - it was one of the most valuable goods. But a state monopoly was not introduced, so the price of salt increased.

Exports have increased: sailing cloth, cast iron, iron, timber, hemp, bristles, bread - mainly raw materials and semi-finished products. And industrial products accounted for 80% of imports. Russian merchant ships began to sail into the Mediterranean Sea.

Catherine II did not understand the importance of industrial development, because believed that this would reduce the number of employees.

Industry and Agriculture developed mainly through extensive methods (increasing the amount of arable land). During her reign, there were frequent cases of famine in the countryside, which was explained by crop failures, but some historians believe that this was the result of massive grain exports.

During the reign of Catherine II, bribery and other forms of arbitrariness by officials flourished (what we now call corruption), she knew about it herself and tried to fight, but to no avail. As the historian V. Bilbasov writes, “Catherine soon became convinced for herself that “bribery in state affairs” cannot be eradicated by decrees and manifestos, that this requires a radical reform of everything political system- a task... that turned out to be beyond the capabilities of either that time or the later.”

Historians note the exorbitant growth of favoritism under Catherine II, which did not contribute to the well-being of the state, but increased expenses. They also received rewards without any measure. For example, her favorite Platon Zubov had so many awards that he looked like “a seller of ribbons and hardware.” During her reign, she gave gifts to a total of more than 800 thousand peasants. She gave out about 100 thousand rubles annually for the maintenance of Grigory Potemkin’s niece, and gave her and her fiancé 1 million rubles for their wedding. Near her was a crowd of French courtiers, whom she generously presented with gifts. Large amounts were paid to representatives of the Polish aristocracy, including King Stanislaw Poniatowski (formerly her favorite).

Education and science

Catherine II Special attention devoted to women's education. In 1764, the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens was opened.

Smolny Institute of Noble Maidens

Hood. Galaktionov "Smolny Institute"

This is the first women's educational institution in Russia. It was founded on the initiative of I. I. Betsky and in accordance with the decree of Catherine the Second in 1764 and was originally called the “Imperial Educational Society of Noble Maidens.” It was created to "provide the state with educated women, good mothers, useful members of the family and society."

Catherine, a fan of the progressive ideas of the French Enlightenment, wanted to establish an educational institution that had no equal in Europe at that time. According to the charter, children entered the institution no older than six years of age and remained there for 12 years. Parents had to give a signature that before the expiration of this period they would not take their children out of the educational institution. The Empress hoped that the children would be removed from an ignorant environment and formed into educated people, thus, will further create " new breed of people". The decree provided for the education of two hundred noble maidens in the newly built Novodevichy Convent. At first it was a closed institution for noble children, and in 1765 a department “for bourgeois girls” (non-noble classes, except serfs) was opened at the institute. The building for the Bourgeois School was erected by the architect J. Felten.

K.D. Ushinsky

In 1859-1862. The institute’s class inspector was K.D. Ushinsky, who carried out a number of progressive reforms in it (a new seven-year curriculum with a large number hours allocated to Russian language, geography, history, natural science, etc.). After Ushinsky's forced departure from the institute, all of his major reforms were eliminated.

The students of the institute wore uniform dresses a certain color: V younger age- coffee, in the second - dark blue, in the third - blue and in older age - white. More light colors symbolized increasing education and accuracy.

The program included training in Russian literature, geography, arithmetic, history, foreign languages, music, dancing, drawing, social manners, various types home economics, etc.

The final public examination was attended by the emperor and members of his family. At the end of the institute, the six best graduates received a “cipher” - a gold monogram in the form of the initial of Empress Catherine II, which was worn on a white bow with gold stripes.

Some students of the institute became ladies-in-waiting at the court (maids-in-waiting formed the retinue of empresses and grand duchesses).

The institute's training course was equivalent to that of women's gymnasiums.

In October 1917, the institute, headed by Princess V.V. Golitsyna, moved to Novocherkassk.

The last Russian graduation took place in February 1919 in Novocherkassk. Already in the summer of 1919, the institute left Russia and continued work in Serbia.

"Code" of the best graduates of the Smolny Institute

Under Catherine II, the Academy of Sciences became one of the leading scientific bases in Europe. An observatory was founded physical office, anatomical theater, botanical garden, instrumental workshops, printing house, library, archive. In 1783 the Russian Academy was founded. Russian Academy(Also Imperial Russian Academy, Russian Academy) was created by Catherine II and Princess E. R. Dashkova on the model of the French Academy for the Study of Russian Language and Literature in St. Petersburg. The main result of the activities of this product of the Russian Enlightenment was the publication of the Russian Academic Dictionary. In 1841, the academy was transformed into the 2nd Branch of the Imperial St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences.

But historians do not rate highly the successes in the field of education and science under Catherine II: educational establishments There was always a shortage of students, many students could not pass exams, and studies were not organized well enough.

Under Catherine, educational homes for street children were organized, where they received education and upbringing. To help widows, the Widow's Treasury was created. During her reign, the fight against epidemics began to take on the character of state events.

National politics

Catherine II in 1791 established the Pale of Settlement for Jews: in the lands annexed as a result of the three partitions of Poland, as well as in the steppe regions near the Black Sea and sparsely populated areas east of the Dnieper. The conversion of Jews to Orthodoxy lifted all restrictions on residence. The Pale of Settlement contributed to the preservation of Jewish national identity and the formation of a special Jewish identity within the Russian Empire.

In 1762, Catherine II issued a manifesto “On allowing all foreigners entering Russia to settle in the provinces they wish and on the rights granted to them.” There was a list of benefits for immigrants. This is how they arose German settlements in the Volga region, reserved for immigrants. The influx of German colonists was very large; already in 1766 it was necessary to temporarily suspend the reception of new settlers until those who had already arrived were settled. During the reign of Catherine, Russia included Northern Black Sea region, Azov region, Crimea, Right Bank Ukraine, lands between the Dniester and Bug, Belarus, Courland and Lithuania.

Monument to Catherine II in the city of Marks, Saratov region

But this seemingly positive phenomenon turned out to be incidental - the “discord of interests” intensified when the indigenous population found themselves in a worse position and when some Russian nobles at the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries. as a reward for their service, they were asked to “register as Germans” so that they could enjoy the corresponding privileges.

Under Catherine, the privileges of the nobles were further strengthened. Peasants made up about 95% of the population, and serfs made up more than 50% of the population. According to the general opinion of historians, the situation of this largest group of the population in the era of Catherine was the worst in the entire history of Russia. Trade by peasants reached wide proportions: they were sold in markets, in advertisements on the pages of newspapers; they were lost at cards, exchanged, given as gifts, and forced into marriage. She adopted a number of laws that worsened the situation of the peasants. During her reign, she gave away more than 800 thousand peasants to landowners and nobles. The result of this policy was Peasants' War 1773-1775

Catherine pursued a policy of religious tolerance; in the first years of her reign, the persecution of Old Believers ceased. She even supported the initiative of Peter III to return Old Believers from abroad. But the number of Protestants (mainly Lutherans) increased due to the massive resettlement of Germans to Russia.

Pretenders to the throne

Catherine's rise to power through illegal means gave birth to a series of pretenders to the Russian throne: from 1764 to 1773. Seven False Peters III appeared in the country (claiming that they were the “resurrected Peter”), the eighth was Emelyan Pugachev. And in 1774-1775. the “case of Princess Tarakanova” was added, posing as the daughter of Elizaveta Petrovna.

During her reign, 3 conspiracies against her were uncovered, two of them were associated with the name of Ivan Antonovich (Ivan VI), who at the time of Catherine II’s accession to the throne was imprisoned in the Shlisselburg fortress.

Freemasonry is becoming increasingly popular among the educated nobility. Catherine II tried to control Freemasonry and allow only such activities that did not contradict her interests.

Literature

Russian literature in the era of Catherine, as in general in the 18th century, according to a number of historians, was mainly engaged in the “processing of foreign elements.” The “official” literature of Catherine’s era is represented by several famous names: Fonvizin (read about him on our website: , Sumarokov, Derzhavin (read about him on our website: ). There was also “unofficial” literature: Radishchev, Novikov, Krechetov, which was banned, and the authors were subjected to severe repression. For example , Knyazhnin, whose historical drama (“Vadim Novgorodsky”) was banned and the entire print run was burned.

Novikov's journal "Truten" was closed by the authorities in 1770 due to the fact that it raised serious social topics- arbitrariness of landowners in relation to peasants, corruption among officials, etc. The St. Petersburg Bulletin, which existed for only a little more than two years, and other magazines suffered the same fate. In A. Radishchev’s book “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow” there are no calls for the overthrow of the existing system and for the abolition of serfdom. But the author was sentenced to death penalty quartered (after pardon, replaced by a 10-year exile to Tobolsk) for the fact that his book “is filled with harmful speculation that destroys public peace, detracting from the respect due to authority...”. Catherine loved flattery and could not stand people who dared to express their critical judgments that ran counter to her own.

Culture and art under Catherine

Foundation of the Hermitage

Hermitage Hall

State Hermitage Museum in St. Petersburg - the largest art, cultural and historical museum in Russia and one of the largest in the world. The history of the museum begins in 1764, with collections of works of art that Catherine II began to acquire privately. Initially, this collection was housed in a special palace wing - the Small Hermitage (from the French. ermitage- a place of solitude), hence it stuck common name future museum. In 1852, the greatly expanded collection was formed and opened to the public. Imperial Hermitage.

Today, the museum's collection includes about three million works of art and monuments of world culture, from the Stone Age to the present day.

Founding of the Public Library

Old library building early XIX V.

In 1795, by the highest order of Empress Catherine II, it was founded Imperial Public Library. The basis of the Imperial public library is the Załuski Library (400,000 volumes), which was declared the property of the Russian government as a war trophy after the suppression of the uprising led by Tadeusz Kościuszko in 1794 and the capture of Warsaw by A. Suvorov. Currently, it is a particularly valuable object of national heritage and constitutes the historical and cultural heritage of peoples Russian Federation. One of the largest libraries in the world.

Catherine II patronized various fields of art - architecture, music, painting.

The palaces of the era of Catherine II (Winter, Bolshoi Catherine, Catherine in Moscow) and the parks around them in their luxury and splendor were not inferior to the palaces and parks of the French kings and had no other equals in Europe. Everyone competes in the luxury of carriages, the thoroughbred horses, the splendor of teams, the main objective- seem no worse than others.

Catherine's foreign policyII

V. Borovikovsky "Catherine on a walk in Tsarskoye Selo Park"

Foreign policy under Catherine was aimed at strengthening Russia's role in the world and expanding its territory. The motto of her diplomacy was as follows: “ You need to be on friendly terms with all powers in order to always retain the opportunity to take the side of the weaker... to keep your hands free... not to be dragged behind anyone.”

Under Catherine, the growth of Russia was as follows: after the first Turkish war in 1744, Russia acquired Kinburn, Azov, Kerch, Yenikale. Then, in 1783, Balta, Crimea and the Kuban region are annexed. Second Turkish war ends with the acquisition of the coastal strip between the Bug and the Dniester (1791). Russia is already firmly on the Black Sea.

At the same time, the Polish partitions give Western Rus' to Russia: in 1773, Russia receives part of Belarus (Vitebsk and Mogilev provinces); in 1793 - Minsk, Volyn and Podolsk; in 1795-1797 - Lithuanian provinces (Vilna, Kovno and Grodno), Black Rus', the upper reaches of Pripyat and the western part of Volyn. Simultaneously with the third partition, the Duchy of Courland was annexed to Russia.

An important direction of Catherine II’s foreign policy was also the annexation as a result of Russian-Turkish wars territories of Crimea, the Black Sea region and North Caucasus who were under Turkish rule. The wars with Turkey were marked by major military victories of Rumyantsev, Suvorov, Potemkin, Kutuzov, Ushakov.

The Werel Peace Treaty with Sweden was signed in 1790, according to which the border between the countries did not change.

Relations between Russia and Prussia normalized and an alliance treaty was concluded between the countries.

After the French Revolution, Catherine was one of the initiators of the anti-French coalition and the establishment of the principle of legitimism. She said: “The weakening of monarchical power in France endangers all other monarchies. For my part, I am ready to resist with all my might. It's time to act and take up arms." But in reality, she avoided participating in hostilities against France.

During the reign of Catherine Russian empire gained status great power. As a result of two successful Russian-Turkish wars for Russia, 1768-1774 and 1787-1791. The Crimean Peninsula and the entire territory of the Northern Black Sea region were annexed to Russia. In 1772-1795 Russia took part in three sections of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, as a result of which it annexed the territories of present-day Belarus, Western Ukraine, Lithuania and Courland. During Catherine's reign, Russian colonization of the Aleutian Islands and Alaska began.

During the long reign of Catherine II (34 years), there was a lot of good and bad. But we agree with the words of Catherine’s contemporary, Russian historian and publicist Prince M.M. Shcherbatov, who wrote that the favoritism and debauchery of Catherine II contributed to the decline of the morals of the nobility of that era.