Calculation of the Gregorian calendar. How does the Julian calendar differ from the Gregorian calendar? Rules for specifying dates

Citizens of the Soviet country, having gone to bed on January 31, 1918, woke up on February 14. The "Decree on the introduction of Russian Republic Western European calendar." Bolshevik Russia switched to the so-called new, or civil, style of calculating time, which coincided with the church Gregorian calendar, which was used in Europe. These changes did not affect our Church: it continued to celebrate its holidays according to the old Julian calendar.

The calendar split between Western and Eastern Christians (believers began to celebrate the main holidays at different times) occurred in the 16th century, when Pope Gregory XIII undertook another reform, replacing the Julian style with the Gregorian. The purpose of the reform was to correct the growing difference between the astronomical year and the calendar year.

Obsessed with the idea of world revolution and internationalism, the Bolsheviks, of course, did not care about the Pope and his calendar. As stated in the decree, the transition to the Western, Gregorian style was made “in order to establish in Russia the same calculation of time with almost all cultural peoples...” At one of the first meetings of the young Soviet government in early 1918, two time reform projects were considered . The first envisaged a gradual transition to the Gregorian calendar, dropping 24 hours every year. This would have taken 13 years. The second envisaged doing this in one fell swoop. It was he who liked the leader of the world proletariat, Vladimir Ilyich Lenin, who surpassed the current ideologist of multiculturalism, Angela Merkel, in globalist projects.

Competently

Religious historian Alexey Yudin talks about how Christian churches celebrate Christmas:

First of all, let’s make it clear right away: it is incorrect to say that someone celebrates December 25, and someone celebrates January 7. Everyone celebrates Christmas on the 25th, but according to different calendars. In the next hundred years, from my point of view, no unification of Christmas celebrations can be expected.

The old Julian calendar, adopted under Julius Caesar, lagged behind astronomical time. The reform of Pope Gregory XIII, which was called papist from the very beginning, was extremely negatively received in Europe, especially in Protestant countries, where the reformation was already firmly established. Protestants were against it primarily because “it was planned in Rome.” And this city in the 16th century was no longer the center of Christian Europe.

Red Army soldiers take church property out of the Simonov Monastery at a subbotnik (1925). Photo: Wikipedia.org

If desired, the calendar reform can, of course, be called a schism, bearing in mind that the Christian world has already split not only along the “east-west” principle, but also within the west.

Therefore, the Gregorian calendar was perceived as Roman, papist, and therefore unsuitable. Gradually, however, Protestant countries accepted it, but the transition process took centuries. This is how things were in the West. The East did not pay attention to the reform of Pope Gregory XIII.

The Soviet Republic switched to a new style, but this, unfortunately, was connected with the revolutionary events in Russia; the Bolsheviks, naturally, did not think about any Pope Gregory XIII, they simply considered the new style the most adequate to their worldview. And the Russian Orthodox Church has an additional trauma.

In 1923, on the initiative of the Patriarch of Constantinople, a meeting of Orthodox churches was held, at which they decided to correct the Julian calendar.

Representatives of the Russian Orthodox Church, of course, were unable to travel abroad. But Patriarch Tikhon nevertheless issued a decree on the transition to the “New Julian” calendar. However, this caused protests among believers, and the decree was quickly canceled.

You see that there were several stages of searching for a calendar match. But this did not lead to the final result. So far, this issue is completely absent from serious church discussion.

Is the Church afraid of another schism? Of course, some ultra-conservative groups within the Church will say: “They betrayed sacred time.” Any Church is a very conservative institution, especially with regard to everyday life and liturgical practices. And they rest on the calendar. And the church-administrative resource is ineffective in such matters.

Every Christmas, the topic of switching to the Gregorian calendar comes up. But this is politics, a profitable media presentation, PR, whatever you want. The Church itself does not participate in this and is reluctant to comment on these issues.

Why does the Russian Orthodox Church use the Julian calendar?

Father Vladimir (Vigilyansky), rector of the Church of the Holy Martyr Tatiana at Moscow State University:

Orthodox churches can be divided into three categories: those that celebrate all church holidays according to the new (Gregorian) calendar, those that serve only the old (Julian) calendar, and those that mix styles: for example, in Greece Easter is celebrated according to old calendar, and all other holidays - in a new way. Our churches (Russian, Georgian, Jerusalem, Serbian and Mount Athos monasteries) never changed the church calendar and did not mix it with the Gregorian calendar, so that there was no confusion in the holidays. We have a single calendar system, which is tied to Easter. If we switch to celebrating, say, Christmas according to the Gregorian calendar, then two weeks are “eaten up” (remember how in 1918, after January 31, February 14 came), each day of which brings Orthodox man special semantic significance.

The Church lives according to its own order, and in it many significant things may not coincide with secular priorities. For example, in church life there is a clear system of progression of time, which is tied to the Gospel. Every day excerpts from this book are read, which has a logic connected with the gospel story and earthly life Jesus Christ. All this lays down a certain spiritual rhythm in the life of an Orthodox person. And those who use this calendar do not want and will not violate it.

A believer has a very ascetic life. The world can change, we see how before our eyes our fellow citizens have a lot of opportunities, for example, for relaxation during the secular New Year holidays. But the Church, as one of our rock singers sang, “will not bend to the changing world.” We will not make our church life dependent on the ski resort.

The Bolsheviks introduced new calendar"for the purpose of the same calculation of time with almost all cultural peoples." Photo: Publishing project of Vladimir Lisin "Days of 1917 100 years ago"

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Gregorian calendar- a time calculation system based on the cyclic revolution of the Earth around the Sun; the length of the year is taken to be 365.2425 days; contains 97 leap years per 400 years.

The Gregorian calendar was first introduced by Pope Gregory XIII in Catholic countries on October 4, 1582, replacing the previous Julian calendar: the next day after Thursday, October 4, became Friday, October 15.

Gregorian calendar used in most countries of the world.

Structure of the Gregorian calendar

In the Gregorian calendar, the length of the year is taken to be 365.2425 days. The duration of a non-leap year is 365 days, a leap year is 366.

$365(,)2425 = 365 + 0(,)25 - 0(,)01 + 0(,)0025 = 365 + \frac(1)(4) - \frac(1)(100) + \frac(1 )(400).$ This follows the distribution of leap years:

a year whose number is a multiple of 400 is a leap year;
other years, the number of which is a multiple of 100, are non-leap years;
other years, the number of which is a multiple of 4, are leap years.

Thus, 1600 and 2000 were leap years, but 1700, 1800 and 1900 were not leap years.

An error of one day compared to the year of the equinoxes in the Gregorian calendar will accumulate in approximately 10,000 years (in the Julian calendar - approximately in 128 years). A frequently encountered estimate, leading to a value of the order of 3000 years, is obtained if one does not take into account that the number of days in the tropical year changes over time and, in addition, the relationship between the lengths of the seasons changes.

In the Gregorian calendar there are leap and non-leap years; the year can begin on any of the seven days of the week. In total, this gives 2 × 7 = 14 calendar options for the year.

Months

According to the Gregorian calendar, the year is divided into 12 months, lasting from 28 to 31 days:

№	Month	Number of days
1	January	31
2	February	28 (29 in leap years)
3	March	31
4	April	30
5	May	31
6	June	30
7	July	31
8	August	31
9	September	30
10	October	31
11	November	30
12	December	31

Rule for remembering the number of days in a month

There is a simple rule for remembering the number of days in a month - “ domino rule».

If you put your fists together in front of you so that you can see back sides palms, then by the “knuckles” (finger joints) on the edge of the palm and the spaces between them, you can determine whether a month is “long” (31 days) or “short” (30 days, except February). To do this, you need to start counting the months from January, counting the dominoes and intervals. January will correspond to the first domino (long month - 31 days), February - the interval between the first and second dominoes (short month), March - domino, etc. The next two consecutive long months - July and August - fall exactly on the adjacent knuckles of different hands (the space between the fists does not count).

There is also a mnemonic rule "Ap-yun-sen-no". The syllables of this word indicate the names of months consisting of 30 days. It is known that February, depending on the specific year, contains 28 or 29 days. All other months contain 31 days. The convenience of this mnemonic rule is that there is no need to “recount” the knuckles.

There is also an English school saying to remember the number of days in months: Thirty days have September, April, June and November. Analog to German: Dreißig Tage hat September, April, June and November.

Difference between Julian and Gregorian calendars

At the time of the introduction of the Gregorian calendar, the difference between it and the Julian calendar was 10 days. However, this difference gradually increases due to the different number of leap years - in the Gregorian calendar, the final year of a century, if not divisible by 400, is not a leap year (see leap year) - and today is 13 days.

Story

Prerequisites for the transition to the Gregorian calendar

The Gregorian calendar provides a much more accurate approximation of the tropical year. The reason for the adoption of the new calendar was the gradual shift in relation to the Julian calendar of the day of the vernal equinox, by which the date of Easter was determined, and the discrepancy between the Easter full moons and the astronomical ones. Before Gregory XIII, Popes Paul III and Pius IV tried to implement the project, but they did not achieve success. The preparation of the reform, at the direction of Gregory XIII, was carried out by the astronomers Christopher Clavius and Aloysius Lilius. The results of their labor were recorded in a papal bull, signed by the pontiff at Villa Mondragon and named after the first line Inter gravity(“Among the most important”).

The transition to the Gregorian calendar entailed the following changes:

Over time, the Julian and Gregorian calendars diverge more and more, by three days every 400 years.

Dates of countries switching to the Gregorian calendar

Countries switched from the Julian calendar to the Gregorian calendar at different times:

Last day Julian calendar	First day Gregorian calendar	States and territories
4 October 1582	15 October 1582	Spain, Italy, Portugal, Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (federal state: Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Kingdom of Poland)
9 December 1582	20 December 1582	France, Lorraine
21 December 1582	1 January 1583	Flanders, Holland, Brabant, Belgium
10 February 1583	21 February 1583	Bishopric of Liege
13 February 1583	24 February 1583	Augsburg
4 October 1583	15 October 1583	Trier
5 December 1583	16 December 1583	Bavaria, Salzburg, Regensburg
1583		Austria (part), Tyrol
6 January 1584	17 January 1584	Austria
11 January 1584	22 January 1584	Switzerland (cantons of Lucerne, Uri, Schwyz, Zug, Freiburg, Solothurn)
12 January 1584	23 January 1584	Silesia
1584		Westphalia, Spanish colonies in America
21 October 1587	November 1, 1587	Hungary
December 14, 1590	December 25, 1590	Transylvania
22 August 1610	2 September 1610	Prussia
28 February 1655	11 March 1655	Switzerland (canton of Valais)
February 18, 1700	March 1, 1700	Denmark (including Norway), Protestant German states
November 16, 1700	November 28, 1700	Iceland
December 31, 1700	12 January 1701	Switzerland (Zurich, Bern, Basel, Geneva)
September 2, 1752	September 14, 1752	Great Britain and colonies
February 17, 1753	March 1, 1753	Sweden (including Finland)
October 5, 1867	October 18, 1867	Alaska (day of transfer of territory from Russia to the USA)
January 1, 1873		Japan
November 20, 1911		China
December 1912		Albania
March 31, 1916	April 14, 1916	Bulgaria
February 15, 1917	March 1, 1917	Türkiye (preserving the counting of years according to the Rumian calendar with a difference of −584 years)
January 31, 1918	February 14, 1918	RSFSR, Estonia
February 1, 1918	February 15, 1918	Latvia, Lithuania (effectively since the beginning of the German occupation in 1915)
February 16, 1918	March 1, 1918	Ukraine (Ukrainian People's Republic)
April 17, 1918	May 1, 1918	Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic (Georgia, Azerbaijan and Armenia)
January 18, 1919	February 1, 1919	Romania, Yugoslavia
March 9, 1924	March 23, 1924	Greece
January 1, 1926		Turkey (transition from counting years according to the Rumian calendar to counting years according to the Gregorian calendar)
September 17, 1928	October 1, 1928	Egypt
1949		China

Transition history

In 1582, Spain, Italy, Portugal, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Poland), France, and Lorraine switched to the Gregorian calendar.

By the end of 1583, they were joined by Holland, Belgium, Brabant, Flanders, Liege, Augsburg, Trier, Bavaria, Salzburg, Regensburg, part of Austria and Tyrol. There were some oddities. For example, in Belgium and Holland, January 1, 1583 came immediately after December 21, 1582, and the entire population was left without Christmas that year.

In a number of cases, the transition to the Gregorian calendar was accompanied by serious unrest. For example, when Polish king Stefan Batory introduced a new calendar in Riga in 1584, local merchants rebelled, claiming that a 10-day shift would disrupt their delivery times and lead to significant losses. The rebels destroyed the Riga church and killed several municipal employees. It was possible to cope with the “calendar unrest” only in the summer of 1589.

In some countries that switched to the Gregorian calendar, the Julian calendar was subsequently resumed as a result of their annexation with other states. Due to the transition of countries to the Gregorian calendar at different times, factual errors of perception may arise: for example, it is sometimes said that Inca Garcilaso de la Vega, Miguel de Cervantes and William Shakespeare died on the same day - April 23, 1616. In fact, Shakespeare died 10 days later than Inca Garcilaso, since in Catholic Spain the new style was in effect since its introduction by the pope, and Great Britain switched to the new calendar only in 1752, and 11 days later than Cervantes (who died on 22 April, but was buried on April 23).

The introduction of the new calendar also had serious financial consequences for tax collectors. In 1753 - the first full year According to the Gregorian calendar, bankers refused to pay taxes, waiting 11 days after the usual end date for collections - March 25. As a result fiscal year in Great Britain began only on April 6. This date remained until today, as a symbol big changes that happened 250 years ago.

The change to the Gregorian calendar in Alaska was unusual, since there it was combined with a shift in the date line. Therefore, after Friday October 5, 1867, according to the old style, there was another Friday, October 18, 1867, according to the new style.

Ethiopia and Thailand have not yet switched to the Gregorian calendar.

In the booth into which Pierre entered and in which he stayed for four weeks, there were twenty-three captured soldiers, three officers and two officials.
All of them then appeared to Pierre as if in a fog, but Platon Karataev remained forever in Pierre’s soul as the strongest and dearest memory and personification of everything Russian, kind and round. When the next day, at dawn, Pierre saw his neighbor, the first impression of something round was completely confirmed: the whole figure of Plato in his French overcoat belted with a rope, in a cap and bast shoes, was round, his head was completely round, his back, chest, shoulders, even the hands that he carried, as if always about to hug something, were round; a pleasant smile and large brown gentle eyes were round.
Platon Karataev must have been over fifty years old, judging by his stories about the campaigns in which he participated as a long-time soldier. He himself did not know and could not determine in any way how old he was; but his teeth, bright white and strong, which kept rolling out in their two semicircles when he laughed (which he often did), were all good and intact; no one gray hair was not in his beard and hair, and his whole body had the appearance of flexibility and especially hardness and endurance.
His face, despite the small round wrinkles, had an expression of innocence and youth; his voice was pleasant and melodious. But main feature his speech consisted of spontaneity and argument. He apparently never thought about what he said and what he would say; and because of this, the speed and fidelity of his intonations had a special irresistible persuasiveness.
His physical strength and agility were such during the first time of captivity that it seemed that he did not understand what fatigue and illness were. Every day, in the morning and in the evening, when he lay down, he said: “Lord, lay it down like a pebble, lift it up into a ball”; in the morning, getting up, always shrugging his shoulders in the same way, he said: “I lay down and curled up, got up and shook myself.” And indeed, as soon as he lay down, he immediately fell asleep like a stone, and as soon as he shook himself, in order to immediately, without a second of delay, take up some task, like children, getting up, taking up their toys. He knew how to do everything, not very well, but not badly either. He baked, steamed, sewed, planed, and made boots. He was always busy and only at night allowed himself conversations, which he loved, and songs. He sang songs, not as songwriters sing, who know that they are being listened to, but he sang like birds sing, obviously because he needed to make these sounds just as it is necessary to stretch or disperse; and these sounds were always subtle, gentle, almost feminine, mournful, and at the same time his face was very serious.
Having been captured and grown a beard, he apparently threw away everything alien and soldierly that had been imposed on him and involuntarily returned to his former, peasant, folk mindset.
“A soldier on leave is a shirt made from trousers,” he used to say. He was reluctant to talk about his time as a soldier, although he did not complain, and often repeated that throughout his service he was never beaten. When he spoke, he mainly spoke from his old and, apparently, dear memories of “Christian”, as he pronounced it, peasant life. The sayings that filled his speech were not those for the most part indecent and glib sayings that soldiers say, but these were those folk sayings that seem so insignificant, taken in isolation, and which suddenly take on the meaning of deep wisdom when they are said at the right time.
Often he said the exact opposite of what he had said before, but both were true. He loved to talk and spoke well, decorating his speech with endearments and proverbs, which, it seemed to Pierre, he was inventing himself; but the main charm of his stories was that in his speech the simplest events, sometimes the very ones that Pierre saw without noticing them, took on the character of solemn beauty. He loved to listen to fairy tales that one soldier told in the evenings (all the same ones), but most of all he loved to listen to stories about real life. He smiled joyfully as he listened to such stories, inserting words and making questions that tended to clarify for himself the beauty of what was being told to him. Karataev had no attachments, friendship, love, as Pierre understood them; but he loved and lived lovingly with everything that life brought him to, and especially with a person - not with some famous person, but with those people who were before his eyes. He loved his mongrel, he loved his comrades, the French, he loved Pierre, who was his neighbor; but Pierre felt that Karataev, despite all his affectionate tenderness towards him (with which he involuntarily paid tribute to Pierre’s spiritual life), would not for a minute be upset by separation from him. And Pierre began to feel the same feeling towards Karataev.
Platon Karataev was for all the other prisoners the most ordinary soldier; his name was Falcon or Platosha, they mocked him good-naturedly and sent him for parcels. But for Pierre, as he presented himself on the first night, an incomprehensible, round and eternal personification of the spirit of simplicity and truth, that is how he remained forever.
Platon Karataev knew nothing by heart except his prayer. When he gave his speeches, he, starting them, seemed not to know how he would end them.
When Pierre, sometimes amazed at the meaning of his speech, asked him to repeat what he had said, Plato could not remember what he had said a minute ago - just as he could not tell Pierre his favorite song in words. It said: “darling, little birch and I feel sick,” but the words didn’t make any sense. He did not understand and could not understand the meaning of words taken separately from speech. His every word and every action was a manifestation of an activity unknown to him, which was his life. But his life, as he himself looked at it, had no meaning as a separate life. She made sense only as a part of the whole, which he constantly felt. His words and actions poured out of him as uniformly, necessarily, and directly as a scent is released from a flower. He could not understand either the price or the meaning of a single action or word.

Having received news from Nicholas that her brother was with the Rostovs in Yaroslavl, Princess Marya, despite her aunt’s dissuasions, immediately got ready to go, and not only alone, but with her nephew. Whether it was difficult, not difficult, possible or impossible, she did not ask and did not want to know: her duty was not only to be near her perhaps dying brother, but also to do everything possible to bring him her son, and she stood up drive. If Prince Andrei himself did not notify her, then Princess Marya explained it either by the fact that he was too weak to write, or by the fact that he considered this long journey too difficult and dangerous for her and for his son.
Within a few days, Princess Marya got ready to travel. Her crews consisted of a huge princely carriage, in which she arrived in Voronezh, a britzka and a cart. Traveling with her were M lle Bourienne, Nikolushka and her tutor, an old nanny, three girls, Tikhon, a young footman and a haiduk, whom her aunt had sent with her.
It was impossible to even think about going the usual route to Moscow, and therefore the roundabout route that Princess Marya had to take: to Lipetsk, Ryazan, Vladimir, Shuya, was very long, due to the lack of post horses everywhere, very difficult and near Ryazan, where, as they said the French were showing up, even dangerous.
During this difficult journey, M lle Bourienne, Desalles and Princess Mary's servants were surprised by her fortitude and activity. She went to bed later than everyone else, got up earlier than everyone else, and no difficulties could stop her. Thanks to her activity and energy, which excited her companions, by the end of the second week they were approaching Yaroslavl.
IN Lately During her stay in Voronezh, Princess Marya experienced the best happiness of her life. Her love for Rostov no longer tormented or worried her. This love filled her entire soul, became an inseparable part of herself, and she no longer fought against it. Lately, Princess Marya became convinced—although she never clearly told herself this in words—she became convinced that she was loved and loved. She was convinced of this during her last meeting with Nikolai, when he came to announce to her that her brother was with the Rostovs. Nicholas did not hint in a single word that now (if Prince Andrei recovered) the previous relationship between him and Natasha could be resumed, but Princess Marya saw from his face that he knew and thought this. And, despite the fact that his attitude towards her - cautious, tender and loving - not only did not change, but he seemed to rejoice in the fact that now the relationship between him and Princess Marya allowed him to more freely express his friendship and love to her, as he sometimes thought Princess Marya. Princess Marya knew that she loved for the first and last time in her life, and felt that she was loved, and was happy and calm in this regard.
But this happiness on one side of her soul not only did not prevent her from feeling grief about her brother with all her might, but, on the contrary, it peace of mind in one respect, it gave her a greater opportunity to devote herself completely to her feelings for her brother. This feeling was so strong in the first minute of leaving Voronezh that those accompanying her were sure, looking at her exhausted, desperate face, that she would certainly get sick on the way; but it was precisely the difficulties and worries of the journey, which Princess Marya took on with such activity, that saved her for a while from her grief and gave her strength.
As always happens during a trip, Princess Marya thought only about one journey, forgetting what was its goal. But, approaching Yaroslavl, when what could lie ahead of her was revealed again, and not many days later, but this evening, Princess Marya’s excitement reached its extreme limits.
When the guide sent ahead to find out in Yaroslavl where the Rostovs were standing and in what position Prince Andrei was, met a large carriage entering at the gate, he was horrified when he saw the terribly pale face of the princess, which leaned out of the window.
“I found out everything, your Excellency: the Rostov men are standing on the square, in the house of the merchant Bronnikov.” “Not far away, just above the Volga,” said the hayduk.
Princess Marya looked at his face with fear and questioning, not understanding what he was saying to her, not understanding why he did not answer main question: what brother? M lle Bourienne asked this question for Princess Marya.
- What about the prince? – she asked.
“Their Lordships are standing with them in the same house.”
“So he is alive,” thought the princess and quietly asked: what is he?
“People said they were all in the same situation.”
What did “everything in the same position” mean, the princess did not ask and only briefly, glancing imperceptibly at the seven-year-old Nikolushka, who was sitting in front of her and rejoicing at the city, lowered her head and did not raise it until the heavy carriage, rattling, shaking and swaying, did not stop somewhere. The folding steps rattled.
The doors opened. On the left there was water - a large river, on the right there was a porch; on the porch there were people, servants and some kind of ruddy girl with a large black braid who was smiling unpleasantly, as it seemed to Princess Marya (it was Sonya). The princess ran up the stairs, the girl feigning a smile said: “Here, here!” - and the princess found herself in the hall in front of old woman with an oriental type of face, who quickly walked towards her with a touched expression. It was the Countess. She hugged Princess Marya and began to kiss her.
- Mon enfant! - she said, “je vous aime et vous connais depuis longtemps.” [My child! I love you and have known you for a long time.]
Despite all her excitement, Princess Marya realized that it was the countess and that she had to say something. She, without knowing how, uttered some polite French words, in the same tone as those spoken to her, and asked: what is he?
“The doctor says there is no danger,” said the countess, but while she was saying this, she raised her eyes upward with a sigh, and in this gesture there was an expression that contradicted her words.
- Where is he? Can I see him, can I? - asked the princess.
- Now, princess, now, my friend. Is this his son? - she said, turning to Nikolushka, who was entering with Desalles. “We can all fit in, the house is big.” Oh, what a lovely boy!
The Countess led the Princess into the living room. Sonya was talking to m lle Bourienne. The Countess caressed the boy. The old count entered the room, greeting the princess. The old count has changed enormously since the princess last saw him. Then he was a lively, cheerful, self-confident old man, now he seemed like a pitiful, lost man. While talking to the princess, he constantly looked around, as if asking everyone whether he was doing what was necessary. After the ruin of Moscow and his estate, knocked out of his usual rut, he apparently lost consciousness of his significance and felt that he no longer had a place in life.
Despite the excitement in which she was, despite the desire to see her brother as quickly as possible and the annoyance that at this moment, when she only wanted to see him, she was being occupied and feignedly praising her nephew, the princess noticed everything that was happening around her, and felt the need to temporarily submit to this new order into which she was entering. She knew that all this was necessary, and it was difficult for her, but she was not annoyed with them.
“This is my niece,” said the count, introducing Sonya. “You don’t know her, princess?”
The princess turned to her and, trying to extinguish the hostile feeling towards this girl that had risen in her soul, kissed her. But it became difficult for her because the mood of everyone around her was so far from what was in her soul.
- Where is he? – she asked again, addressing everyone.
“He’s downstairs, Natasha is with him,” Sonya answered, blushing. - Let's go find out. I think you are tired, princess?
Tears of annoyance came to the princess's eyes. She turned away and was about to ask the countess again where to go to him, when light, swift, seemingly cheerful steps were heard at the door. The princess looked around and saw Natasha almost running in, the same Natasha who she had not liked so much on that long-ago meeting in Moscow.
But before the princess had time to look at this Natasha’s face, she realized that this was her sincere companion in grief, and therefore her friend. She rushed to meet her and, hugging her, cried on her shoulder.
As soon as Natasha, who was sitting at Prince Andrey’s bedside, found out about Princess Marya’s arrival, she quietly left his room with those quick, as it seemed to Princess Marya, seemingly cheerful steps and ran towards her.
On her excited face, when she ran into the room, there was only one expression - an expression of love, boundless love for him, for her, for everything that was close to her loved one, an expression of pity, suffering for others and a passionate desire to give herself all for in order to help them. It was clear that at that moment there was not a single thought about herself, about her relationship to him, in Natasha’s soul.
The sensitive Princess Marya understood all this from the first glance at Natasha’s face and cried with sorrowful pleasure on her shoulder.
“Come on, let’s go to him, Marie,” Natasha said, taking her to another room.
Princess Marya raised her face, wiped her eyes and turned to Natasha. She felt that she would understand and learn everything from her.
“What...” she began to ask, but suddenly stopped. She felt that words could neither ask nor answer. Natasha's face and eyes should have spoken more and more clearly.
Natasha looked at her, but seemed to be in fear and doubt - to say or not to say everything that she knew; She seemed to feel that before those radiant eyes, penetrating into the very depths of her heart, it was impossible not to tell the whole, the whole truth as she saw it. Natasha's lip suddenly trembled, ugly wrinkles formed around her mouth, and she sobbed and covered her face with her hands.
Princess Marya understood everything.
But she still hoped and asked in words she didn’t believe in:
- But how is his wound? In general, what is his position?
“You, you... will see,” Natasha could only say.
They sat downstairs near his room for some time in order to stop crying and come to him with calm faces.
– How did the whole illness go? How long ago has he gotten worse? When did it happen? - asked Princess Marya.
Natasha said that at first there was a danger from a fever and from suffering, but at Trinity this passed, and the doctor was afraid of one thing - Antonov’s fire. But this danger also passed. When we arrived in Yaroslavl, the wound began to fester (Natasha knew everything about suppuration, etc.), and the doctor said that suppuration could proceed properly. There was a fever. The doctor said that this fever is not so dangerous.
“But two days ago,” Natasha began, “suddenly it happened...” She held back her sobs. “I don’t know why, but you will see what he has become.”
- Are you weak? Have you lost weight?.. - asked the princess.
- No, not the same, but worse. You will see. Oh, Marie, Marie, he's too good, he can't, can't live... because...

When Natasha opened his door with her usual movement, letting the princess pass first, Princess Marya already felt ready sobs in her throat. No matter how much she prepared or tried to calm down, she knew that she would not be able to see him without tears.
Princess Marya understood what Natasha meant with the words: this happened two days ago. She understood that this meant that he had suddenly softened, and that this softening and tenderness were signs of death. As she approached the door, she already saw in her imagination that face of Andryusha, which she had known since childhood, tender, meek, touching, which he so rarely saw and therefore always had such a strong effect on her. She knew that he would tell her quietly, tender words, like those that her father told her before his death, and that she could not bear it and would burst into tears over him. But, sooner or later, it had to be, and she entered the room. The sobs came closer and closer to her throat, while with her myopic eyes she discerned his form more and more clearly and looked for his features, and then she saw his face and met his gaze.
He was lying on the sofa, covered with pillows, wearing a squirrel fur robe. He was thin and pale. One is thin, transparent white hand He was holding a handkerchief; with the other, with quiet movements of his fingers, he touched his thin, overgrown mustache. His eyes looked at those entering.
Seeing his face and meeting his gaze, Princess Marya suddenly moderated the speed of her step and felt that her tears had suddenly dried up and her sobs had stopped. Catching the expression on his face and gaze, she suddenly became shy and felt guilty.
“What is my fault?” – she asked herself. “The fact that you live and think about living things, and I!..” answered his cold, stern gaze.
There was almost hostility in his deep, out-of-control, but inward-looking gaze as he slowly looked around at his sister and Natasha.
He kissed his sister hand in hand, as was their habit.
- Hello, Marie, how did you get there? - he said in a voice as even and alien as his gaze. If he had screamed with a desperate cry, then this cry would have terrified Princess Marya less than the sound of this voice.
- And did you bring Nikolushka? – he said also evenly and slowly and with an obvious effort of recollection.
- How your health Now? - said Princess Marya, herself surprised at what she was saying.
“This, my friend, is something you need to ask the doctor,” he said, and, apparently making another effort to be affectionate, he said with just his mouth (it was clear that he did not mean what he was saying): “Merci, chere amie.” , d'etre venue. [Thank you, dear friend, for coming.]
Princess Marya shook his hand. He winced slightly when she shook her hand. He was silent and she didn't know what to say. She understood what happened to him in two days. In his words, in his tone, especially in this look - a cold, almost hostile look - one could feel the alienation from everything worldly, terrible for a living person. He apparently now had difficulty understanding all living things; but at the same time it was felt that he did not understand the living, not because he was deprived of the power of understanding, but because he understood something else, something that the living did not and could not understand and that absorbed him completely.
- Yes, that’s how strange fate brought us together! – he said, breaking the silence and pointing at Natasha. - She keeps following me.
Princess Marya listened and did not understand what he was saying. He, the sensitive, gentle Prince Andrei, how could he say this in front of the one he loved and who loved him! If he had thought about living, he would not have said this in such a coldly insulting tone. If he didn’t know that he would die, then how could he not feel sorry for her, how could he say this in front of her! There was only one explanation for this, and that was that he didn’t care, and it didn’t matter because something else, something more important, was revealed to him.
The conversation was cold, incoherent and interrupted constantly.
“Marie passed through Ryazan,” said Natasha. Prince Andrei did not notice that she called his sister Marie. And Natasha, calling her that in front of him, noticed it herself for the first time.
- Well, what? - he said.
“They told her that Moscow was completely burned down, as if...
Natasha stopped: she couldn’t speak. He obviously made an effort to listen, but still could not.
“Yes, it burned down, they say,” he said. “This is very pathetic,” and he began to look forward, absentmindedly straightening his mustache with his fingers.

For all of us, the calendar is a familiar and even mundane thing. This ancient invention human records the days, numbers, months, seasons, periodicity of natural phenomena, which are based on the system of movement of the celestial bodies: the Moon, the Sun, the stars. The Earth rushes through the solar orbit, leaving years and centuries behind.

Moon calendar

In one day, the Earth makes one complete revolution around its own axis. It passes around the Sun once per year. Solar or lasts three hundred sixty-five days five hours forty-eight minutes forty-six seconds. Therefore, there is no integer number of days. Hence the difficulty in compiling accurate calendar for correct timing.

The ancient Romans and Greeks used convenient and simple calendar. The rebirth of the Moon occurs at intervals of 30 days, or to be precise, at twenty-nine days, twelve hours and 44 minutes. That is why days and then months could be counted by changes in the Moon.

In the beginning, this calendar had ten months, which were named after the Roman gods. From the third century to ancient world an analogue was used based on the four-year lunar-solar cycle, which gave an error in the value of the solar year of one day.

Used in Egypt solar calendar, compiled on the basis of observations of the Sun and Sirius. The year according to it was three hundred sixty-five days. It consisted of twelve months of thirty days. After it expired, another five days were added. This was formulated as “in honor of the birth of the gods.”

History of the Julian calendar

Further changes occurred in the forty-sixth year BC. e. Emperor Ancient Rome Julius Caesar, based on the Egyptian model, introduced the Julian calendar. In it, the value of the year was taken solar year, which was slightly larger than the astronomical one and amounted to three hundred sixty-five days and six hours. The first of January marked the beginning of the year. According to the Julian calendar, Christmas began to be celebrated on January 7th. This is how the transition to a new calendar took place.

In gratitude for the reform, the Senate of Rome renamed the month of Quintilis, when Caesar was born, to Julius (now July). A year later, the emperor was killed, and the Roman priests, either out of ignorance or deliberately, again began to confuse the calendar and began to declare every third year a leap year. As a result, from forty-four to nine BC. e. Instead of nine, twelve leap years were declared.

Emperor Octivian Augustus saved the situation. By his order, there were no leap years for the next sixteen years, and the rhythm of the calendar was restored. In his honor, the month Sextilis was renamed Augustus (August).

For the Orthodox Church, simultaneity was very important church holidays. The date of Easter was discussed at First and this issue became one of the main ones. The rules established at this Council accurate calculation This celebration cannot be changed under pain of anathema.

Gregorian calendar

The head of the Catholic Church, Pope Gregory the Thirteenth, approved and introduced a new calendar in 1582. It was called "Gregorian". It would seem that everyone was happy with the Julian calendar, according to which Europe lived for more than sixteen centuries. However, Gregory the Thirteenth considered that reform was necessary to determine more exact date celebration of Easter, and also for the day to return to the twenty-first of March.

In 1583, the Council of Eastern Patriarchs in Constantinople condemned the adoption of the Gregorian calendar as violating the liturgical cycle and calling into question the canons of the Ecumenical Councils. Indeed, in some years he breaks the basic rule of celebrating Easter. It happens that Catholic Bright Sunday falls earlier than Jewish Easter, and this is not allowed by the canons of the church.

Calculation of chronology in Rus'

In our country, starting from the tenth century, the New Year was celebrated on the first of March. Five centuries later, in 1492, in Russia the beginning of the year was moved, according to church traditions, on the first of September. This went on for more than two hundred years.

On the nineteenth of December, seven thousand two hundred and eight, Tsar Peter the Great issued a decree that the Julian calendar in Russia, adopted from Byzantium along with baptism, was still in force. The start date of the year has changed. It was officially approved in the country. The New Year according to the Julian calendar was to be celebrated on the first of January “from the Nativity of Christ.”

After the revolution of February fourteenth, one thousand nine hundred and eighteen, new rules were introduced in our country. The Gregorian calendar excluded three within each four hundred years. It was this that they began to adhere to.

How are the Julian and Gregorian calendars different? The difference between is in the calculation of leap years. Over time it increases. If in the sixteenth century it was ten days, then in the seventeenth it increased to eleven, in the eighteenth century it was already equal to twelve days, thirteen in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, and by the twenty-second century this figure will reach fourteen days.

Orthodox Church Russia uses the Julian calendar, following the decisions of the Ecumenical Councils, and Catholics use the Gregorian calendar.

You can often hear the question of why the whole world celebrates Christmas on the twenty-fifth of December, and we celebrate the seventh of January. The answer is completely obvious. The Russian Orthodox Church celebrates Christmas according to the Julian calendar. This also applies to other major church holidays.

Today the Julian calendar in Russia is called the “old style”. Currently, its scope of application is very limited. It is used by some Orthodox Churches - Serbian, Georgian, Jerusalem and Russian. In addition, the Julian calendar is used in some Orthodox monasteries in Europe and the USA.

in Russia

In our country, the issue of calendar reform has been raised more than once. In 1830 it was staged by the Russian Academy of Sciences. Prince K.A. Lieven, who served as Minister of Education at the time, considered this proposal untimely. Only after the revolution the issue was brought to a meeting of the Council of People's Commissars Russian Federation. Already on January 24, Russia adopted the Gregorian calendar.

Features of the transition to the Gregorian calendar

For Orthodox Christians, the introduction of a new style by the authorities caused certain difficulties. The New Year turned out to be shifted to a time when any fun is not welcome. Moreover, January 1 is the day of remembrance of St. Boniface, the patron saint of everyone who wants to give up drunkenness, and our country celebrates this day with a glass in hand.

Gregorian and Julian calendar: differences and similarities

Both of them consist of three hundred sixty-five days in a normal year and three hundred sixty-six in a leap year, have 12 months, 4 of which are 30 days and 7 of 31 days, February - either 28 or 29. The difference lies only in the frequency of leap days years.

According to the Julian calendar, a leap year occurs every three years. In this case, it turns out that the calendar year is 11 minutes longer than the astronomical year. In other words, after 128 years there is an extra day. The Gregorian calendar also recognizes that the fourth year is a leap year. The exceptions are those years that are multiples of 100, as well as those that can be divided by 400. Based on this, extra days appear only after 3200 years.

What awaits us in the future

Unlike the Gregorian calendar, the Julian calendar is simpler for chronology, but it is ahead of the astronomical year. The basis of the first became the second. According to the Orthodox Church, the Gregorian calendar violates the order of many biblical events.

Due to the fact that the Julian and Gregorian calendars increase the difference in dates over time, Orthodox churches that use the first of them will celebrate Christmas from 2101 not on January 7, as it happens now, but on January 8, but from nine thousand In the year nine hundred and one, the celebration will take place on March 8th. In the liturgical calendar, the date will still correspond to the twenty-fifth of December.

In countries that used the Julian calendar by the early twentieth century, such as Greece, the dates of all historical events, which occurred after the fifteenth of October, one thousand five hundred and eighty-two, are nominally celebrated on the same dates when they happened.

Consequences of calendar reforms

Currently, the Gregorian calendar is quite accurate. According to many experts, it does not need changes, but the issue of its reform has been discussed for several decades. This is not about introducing a new calendar or any new methods for accounting for leap years. It's about about rearranging the days of the year so that the beginning of each year falls on one day, for example on Sunday.

Today, calendar months range from 28 to 31 days, the length of a quarter ranges from ninety to ninety-two days, with the first half of the year being 3-4 days shorter than the second. This complicates the work of financial and planning authorities.

What new calendar projects exist?

Various projects have been proposed over the past one hundred and sixty years. In 1923, a calendar reform committee was created at the League of Nations. After the end of the Second World War, this issue was transferred to the Economic and Social Committee of the UN.

Despite the fact that there are quite a lot of them, preference is given to two options - the 13-month calendar of the French philosopher Auguste Comte and the proposal of the French astronomer G. Armelin.

In the first option, the month always begins on Sunday and ends on Saturday. One day in the year has no name at all and is inserted at the end of the last thirteenth month. In a leap year, such a day appears in the sixth month. According to experts, this calendar has many significant shortcomings, so more attention is paid to the project of Gustave Armelin, according to which the year consists of twelve months and four quarters of ninety-one days.

The first month of the quarter has thirty-one days, the next two - thirty. The first day of each year and quarter begins on Sunday and ends on Saturday. In a normal year, one additional day is added after the thirtieth of December, and in a leap year - after the 30th of June. This project was approved by France, India, the Soviet Union, Yugoslavia and some other countries. For a long time, the General Assembly delayed approval of the project, and recently this work at the UN has ceased.

Will Russia return to the “old style”

It is quite difficult to explain to foreigners what the concept "Old" means New Year", why we celebrate Christmas later than the Europeans. Today there are those who want to make the transition to the Julian calendar in Russia. Moreover, the initiative comes from well-deserved and respected people. In their opinion, 70% of Russian Orthodox Russians have the right to live according to the calendar used by the Russian Orthodox Church.

07.12.2015

Gregorian calendar - modern system calculus based on astronomical phenomena, namely, on the cyclic revolution of our planet around the Sun. The length of the year in this system is 365 days, with every fourth year becoming a leap year and equal to 364 days.

History of origin

The date of approval of the Gregorian calendar is October 4, 1582. This calendar replaced the Julian calendar in force until that time. Most modern countries live according to the new calendar: look at any calendar and you will get a clear idea of the Gregorian system. According to the Gregorian Calculus, the year is divided into 12 months, the duration of which is 28, 29, 30 and 31 days. The calendar was introduced by Pope Gregory XIII.

The transition to a new calculation entailed the following changes:

At the time of adoption, the Gregorian calendar immediately shifted the current date by 10 days and corrected the errors accumulated by the previous system;
In the new calculus, a more correct rule for determining a leap year began to apply;
The rules for calculating the day of Christian Easter have been modified.

In the year the new system was adopted, Spain, Italy, France, and Portugal joined the chronology, and a couple of years later other European countries joined them. In Russia, the transition to the Gregorian calendar took place only in the 20th century - in 1918. In the territory that was by that time under the control of Soviet power, it was announced that after January 31, 1918, February 14 would immediately follow. For a long time, citizens of the new country could not get used to the new system: the introduction of the Gregorian calendar in Russia caused confusion in documents and minds. In official papers, dates of birth and others significant events for a long time indicated according to the style and new style.

By the way, the Orthodox Church still lives according to the Julian calendar (unlike the Catholic calendar), so the days of church holidays (Easter, Christmas) in Catholic countries do not coincide with Russian ones. According to the highest clergy of the Orthodox Church, the transition to the Gregorian system will lead to canonical violations: the rules of the Apostles do not allow the celebration of Holy Easter to begin on the same day as the Jewish pagan holiday.

China was the last to switch to the new timekeeping system. This happened in 1949 after the proclamation of the People's Republic of China. In the same year, the world-accepted calculation of years was established in China - from the Nativity of Christ.

At the time of approval of the Gregorian calendar, the difference between the two calculation systems was 10 days. By now, due to the different number of leap years, the discrepancy has increased to 13 days. By March 1, 2100, the difference will already reach 14 days.

Compared to the Julian calendar, the Gregorian calendar is more accurate from an astronomical point of view: it is as close as possible to the tropical year. The reason for the change in systems was the gradual shift of the day of the equinox in the Julian calendar: this caused a discrepancy between the Easter full moons and the astronomical ones.

All modern calendars have a familiar appearance to us precisely thanks to the transition of the leadership of the Catholic Church to a new time calculation. If the Julian calendar continued to function, the discrepancies between the real (astronomical) equinoxes and Easter holidays would increase even more, which would introduce confusion into the very principle of determining church holidays.

By the way, the Gregorian calendar itself is not 100% accurate from an astronomical point of view, but the error in it, according to astronomers, will accumulate only after 10,000 years of use.

People continue to use it successfully new system time is already more than 400 years. A calendar is still a useful and functional thing that everyone needs to coordinate dates, plan business and personal life.

Modern printing production has achieved unprecedented technological development. Any commercial or public organization can order calendars with their own symbols from a printing house: they will be produced promptly, with high quality, and at an adequate price.

is a number system for large periods of time, based on the periodicity of the Earth’s movement around the Sun.

The length of a year in the Gregorian calendar is 365.2425 days; there are 97 leap years per 400 years.

The Gregorian calendar is an improvement of the Julian calendar. It was introduced in 1582 by Pope Gregory XIII, replacing the imperfect Julian.

The Gregorian calendar is usually called the new style, and the Julian calendar is called the old style. The difference between the old and new styles is 11 days for the 18th century, 12 days for the 19th century, 13 days for the 20th and 21st centuries, 14 days for the 22nd century.

Adoption of the Gregorian calendar in different countries

Gregorian calendar different countries was introduced into different times. Italy was the first to switch to the new style in 1582. The Italians were followed by Spain, Portugal, Poland, France, Holland and Luxembourg. In the 1580s, these countries were joined by Austria, Switzerland and Hungary.

Great Britain, Germany, Denmark, Norway, Finland and Sweden introduced the new style in the 18th century. The Japanese introduced the Gregorian calendar in the 19th century. At the beginning of the 20th century, the new style was joined in China, Bulgaria, Serbia, Romania, Greece, Turkey and Egypt.

In Rus', where people lived according to the Julian calendar since the 10th century, the new European chronology was introduced by decree of Peter I in 1700. At the same time, the Julian calendar was preserved in Russia, according to which the Russian Orthodox Church still lives. The Gregorian calendar was introduced after October revolution 1917 - from February 14, 1918.

Disadvantages of the Gregorian calendar

The Gregorian calendar is not absolute and has inaccuracies, although it is consistent with natural phenomena. The length of its year is 26 seconds longer than the tropical year and accumulates an error of 0.0003 days per year, which is three days per 10 thousand years.

In addition, the Gregorian calendar does not take into account the slowing of the Earth's rotation, which lengthens the day by 0.6 seconds per 100 years.

Also, the Gregorian calendar does not meet the needs of society. Chief among its shortcomings is the variability of the number of days and weeks in months, quarters and half-years.

Problems with the Gregorian calendar

There are four main problems with the Gregorian calendar:

Inconsistency of the Gregorian calendar with the tropical year. True, such a correspondence is generally unattainable due to the fact that the tropical year does not contain an integer number of days. Because of the need to add extra days to the year from time to time, there are two types of years - ordinary and leap years. Since the year can begin on any day of the week, this gives seven types of ordinary years and seven types of leap years - a total of 14 types of years. To fully reproduce them you need to wait 28 years.
The length of the months varies: they can contain from 28 to 31 days, and this unevenness leads to certain difficulties in economic calculations and statistics.|
Neither ordinary nor leap years do not contain an integer number of weeks. Semi-years, quarters and months also do not contain a whole and equal number of weeks.
From week to week, from month to month and from year to year, the correspondence of dates and days of the week changes, so it is difficult to establish the moments of various events.

New calendar projects

In 1954 and 1956, drafts of a new calendar were discussed at sessions of the UN Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC), but the final resolution of the issue was postponed.

In Russia State Duma A bill was introduced proposing to return the country to the Julian calendar from January 1, 2008. Deputies Viktor Alksnis, Sergey Baburin, Irina Savelyeva and Alexander Fomenko proposed establishing a transition period from December 31, 2007, when, for 13 days, chronology will be carried out simultaneously according to the Julian and Gregorian calendars. In April 2008, the bill was rejected by a majority vote.