Complete preparation for the Unified State Exam in biology. Botany reference materials

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"Plant tissue"

Textile - a group of cells that are similar in structure and perform the same functions.

Where is it located?

Features of cell structure

Meaning

Educational

(meristem)

Tops of stems

Root tips

Cambium (between bast and wood)

Wound

Small dividing cells without vacuoles

Plant growth

Pokrovnaya

Epidermis (skin)

Covers leaves and young shoots

1 row of tightly adjacent living cells, without chloroplasts. There are stomata for gas exchange

Reduced evaporation, gas exchange

Cork

Several rows of tightly packed dead cells filled with air. For gas exchange - lentils

Protection against moisture loss, temperature fluctuations, bacteria

Bark

Multi-layered dead tissue

Protection from temperature fluctuations,... pests

Mechanical

In the lube,

wood

Thick woody shells

Support for plant organs

Conductive

Bast (phloem)

Formed by sieve tubes. They are rows of thin, long living cells without nuclei. The transverse walls between them are pierced with holes, like a sieve.

Water transport and organic matter from leaves to roots

Wood (xylem)

Consists of vessels. The vessels are formed by dead elongated cells with thickened membranes, the horizontal partitions between them are destroyed

Water transport and minerals from root to leaves

Main

(parenchyma)

Leaf pulp

stem core

Root

Chloroplasts in cells

Education and accumulation nutrients

excretory

Sunbirds

Glands

Selection essential oils, water, nectar

Generative –
provide
reproduction
plants

1. Escape

1.Flower

2. Root

2. Seed

3. Fruit

Vegetative organs:

The escape - a stem with leaves and buds located on it.

Consider the structure of two types of plant buds. Determine which of them is leafy (vegetative) and which is floral (generative).

Rice. 2

“Comparison of the structure of vegetative and generative buds.

Vegetative bud

Generative kidney

Rudimentary stem

Rudimentary leaves

Rudimentary buds

Rudimentary inflorescences

Kidney scales

Stem – shoot axis, it connects roots and leaves

The structure of the stem. A stem is a vegetative organ of a plant on which leaves, flowers, and fruits grow. The stem carries water and mineral salts from the root to the leaves and organic matter formed in the leaves down to the roots.

Photosynthesis occurs in green stems. Many plants store reserve nutrients in their stems. The stem can also serve as an organ of vegetative propagation.

Based on the direction and method of growth, stems are classified into erect, creeping, creeping, climbing, and clinging. In some plants the stem is shortened and the leaves form a basal rosette.

Plant stems are characterized by great diversity in shape cross section, size, nature and direction of growth.

The shoot consists of repeating elements - nodes and internodes. The sections of the stem on which leaves develop are called nodes, and the parts of the stem between adjacent nodes are called internodes.

Modifications escape

Sheet -external organ , whose main function is . For this purpose, the leaf usually has a lamellar structure to give , containing a specialized V , gain access to solar . The leaf is also an organ , And (secretion of water droplets) plants. Leaves can retain water and nutrients, and in some plants they have other functions.

Epidermis - layer that protect against harmful effects environment and excessive evaporation of water. Often, on top of the epidermis, the leaf is covered with a protective layer of waxy origin ( ).

Mesophyll , orparenchyma - internal tissue that performs the main function of photosynthesis.

Network of veins , formed by conducting bundles consisting of vessels and sieve tubes, for moving , dissolved , and mechanical elements.

Stomata - special complexes of cells located mainly on the lower surface of leaves; water evaporates through them and

What is the significance of leaf fall in the life of a plant?

1) By autumn, substances that are unnecessary and sometimes harmful to plants accumulate in leaf cells. The leaves are starting to fall. Together with the falling leaves, these substances are also removed from the plants.

2) In winter, the roots of many plants cannot absorb from the soil cold water. If our trees and shrubs did not shed their leaves, they would die from lack of moisture. But some flowering plants retain their leaves all winter. These are evergreen shrubs: lingonberry, heather, and cranberry. The small dense leaves of these plants, which weakly evaporate water, are preserved under the snow. Leaf fall is an adaptation of plants to reduce evaporation in autumn and winter

Functions of modified leaves

Examples

Mustache

Securing the climbing stem

Peas, vetch, china

Scales are thin

Protective function

Onion

Juicy scales

Nutrient storage

Onion

spines

Reduces moisture evaporation, protects against being eaten by animals

Cactus, camel thorn, barberry

Trapping devices of insectivores

Catching and digesting insects

Sundew, Nepenthes, Venus flytrap

The root is an axial organ anatomically similar to the stem . Performs the following functions:

Strengthening the plant in the soil

Absorption of water and minerals from the soil

Storage of organic matter

Vegetative propagation

Lateral roots

(deviate from the main thing)

main root

Subordinate clauses

(grow from the stem and other parts of the plant)

Taproot and fibrous root systems

Root structure

The anatomy of the root is the same as that of the stem (same layers and in the same order)

Due to main function of the root (by absorption) zones were formed in it

2. Generative organs:

Flower - a modified shoot, in the place of which a fruit with seeds or one seed ripens.

Stamen - the male part of the flower. It consists of a filament and an anther in which pollen develops. Pollen develops inside the anthers, and the stamen filament raises it to the desired height. Number of stamens in different flowers various. Pollen grains ripen inside the anther. The size is one cell. On the outside, pollen grains are covered with a dense shell and have spines, denticles, tubercles and grooves. By the shape of a speck of dust, you can determine the plant to which it belongs. In insect-pollinated flowers, the pollen is large and sticky, while in wind-pollinated flowers it is small and dry.

Pestle – the female part of the flower, located in its central part. Top part the pistil is the stigma, its role is to retain pollen. middle part- style and lower - ovary, where one or more ovules are located.

In order to retain pollen, the stigma may be rough or secrete a sticky liquid. And in wind-pollinated plants it resembles a dish brush. The column serves to raise the pestle to a certain height. And from the ovary a fruit is formed.

Most flowers have both a pistil and stamens. But there are flowers that have either stamens or pistils.

A flower that has a pistil and stamens is calledbisexual.

If a flower has either a pistil or stamens, it is called unisexual. If a flower has only a pistil, it isfemale flower , if only the stamens aremale flower.

Flowers and insects.

A flower can tell you a lot. But first of all, he will tell you how it is pollinated: with the help of wind or insects (Appendix 2) and even by what insects.

Of course, bees and butterflies, flies and other insects do not visit flowers in order to promote their pollination. Insects have their own selfish interests here. Which ones exactly?

First of all, insects are attracted to the flower by pollen - a nutritious, high-calorie product that contains proteins, carbohydrates, fats and vitamins in abundance and is to some extent comparable to black and red caviar. Bees collect it for their offspring. Flies, beetles and a host of other insects feast on pollen themselves. This makes it clear why many flowers produce much more pollen than is used for pollination.

But this is not the main objective visits to flowers by insects.

Insects are attracted to the presence of nectar in a flower, a liquid rich in sugars. Nectaries can be located in the most different parts flower. This is due to one or another method of pollination and the corresponding flower design. Usually, nectaries are located in such a way that with each attempt to obtain sweet juice, insects must pay a kind of tribute to the plant: carry away or bring pollen on their bodies and perform pollination.

But insects need a signal about its presence: brightly colored or with sufficient strong odor flower.

Since the flowers, as a rule, are located on a general green background, their color contrasts sharply with green. In the central and northern regions of our country, you can most often find white and yellow, slightly less often red, and even less often blue and purple. The color of the flower is not accidental. The fact is that each type of insect prefers specific color. And the color of the flower attracts precisely “its” insects, which alone can carry out pollination. For bees - blue and violet, pure purple, butterflies - blood red, and in the tropics hummingbirds. Moths are especially fond of visiting white and pale yellow flowers. This is understandable; in the darkness of the night, it is the white color that is most visible.

The sepals can also acquire one color or another (lumbago, adonis, wrestler). Even the top leaves of the shoot (maryannik). This is necessary to increase the painted area in order to be more visible from afar. The same goal is pursued by combining individual flowers into inflorescences.

The structure of a flower is reflected in special formulas, for which abbreviations generally accepted in botany are used.

Seed

Seeds develop from ovules located in the ovaries of pistils in flowering plants.

Seed structure

The seed has

the seed coat formed from the integument of the ovule.

Embryo (is a rudimentary plant at one or another stage of development. Usually in the embryo one can distinguish cotyledons (1 or 2), a rudimentary stem with a growth cone, a rudimentary root (when the seed germinates, it will turn into the main root)

endosperm (is a tissue in which a supply of nutrients for seed germination is deposited. In the ripened fruits of some plants there is no endosperm, because it is absorbed even before early stages embryo development or stored in cotyledons, i.e., the first leaves of the embryo (as in legumes)

The structure of cereal seeds (for example, wheat) is unique. The seed coat fuses with the pericarp. The endosperm is adjacent to the so-called scutellum - that part of the embryo that is the only cotyledon. When the seed germinates, nutrients enter the growing organs through the scutellum.

Fetus – organ of protection and distribution of seeds, the final stage of flower development. Contains seeds surrounded by a pericarp.Pericarp is formed when the walls of the ovary grow.

Type of fruit

Plant name

juicy

Single-seeded

drupe

Cherry, plum, sweet cherry

Polyspermous

Berry

Tomato, gooseberry

Apple

Apple tree, pear tree

dry

Single-seeded

Achene

Sunflower

Caryopsis

Wheat, rye

Polyspermous

Box

Poppy

Bean

Peas, beans

Pod

Cabbage, acacia

Plant propagation

Flowering plants reproduce vegetatively or sexually. Vegetative propagation occurs with the help of vegetative organs (leaf cuttings, stem cuttings, root cuttings, root suckers, tendrils, layering, grafting, rhizomes, tubers, bulbs). Sexual reproduction associated with gametes. Plants experience a regular change of nuclear phases: haploid and diploid. IN life cycle Higher plants alternate two generations: gametophyte and sporophyte. The gametophyte produces gametes. In seed plants, gametophytes have lost the ability to exist independently. The predominant generation was the sporophyte. It is formed after the fusion of gametes. A flower can be considered a gametophyte and a sporophyte, since it first forms spores - male and female - and then gametes develop from below. In flowering plants, fertilization is preceded by pollination.

Types of pollination:

self-pollination (in bisexual flowers)

cross (with the help of wind or insects) In wind-pollinated plants, the flowers are small, collected in inflorescences, bloom before the leaves bloom, the pollen is small and dry, the stamens have long stamen filaments, the stigmas of the pistils are feathery and protrude far from the flowers. They grow in groups. In insect-pollinated plants, the flowers are large, bright, produce nectar, have a scent, and the pollen is large and sticky

In flowering plants, two sperm are simultaneously involved in fertilization (double fertilization). One sperm fuses with the egg (formation of the embryo - diploid set chromosomes), the second sperm fuses with the diploid central nucleus (resulting in the formation of an endosperm with a triploid set of chromosomes). Endosperm is a reserve of nutrients for a young plant

"Systematics of flowering plants"

Systematics is the science of classifying organisms related to each other.

Classification is the grouping of organisms into groups according to their degree of relatedness.

2 cotyledons

1 cotyledon

Root system type

Rod

fibrous

Character of venation

Mesh

Arc or parallel

Assignments in botany during the Unified State Exam 2002-2008.

Kingdom of Bacteria.

What is the purpose of thinning out carrot shoots?

List the main characteristics of flowering plants, according to which they are classified into a separate systematic group.

List ways to increase potato yields.

Explain why it is necessary to hill up potatoes.

What process in the life of a tree is disrupted when its bark is removed?

What tissue of flowering plants connects all organs into a single whole?

What is the purpose of whitewashing the trunks and large branches of fruit trees?

What characteristics are characteristic of coniferous plants?

Why are mushrooms classified as a special kingdom of the organic world? 2002,2004, 2008

What are the structural features and vital functions of mosses? 2002,2008

What characteristics are characteristic of angiosperms?

What characteristics are characteristic of the plant kingdom?

The flowers of many angiosperms are pollinated by insects. Explain the mutual benefits of cross-pollination for insects and plants?

What is the role of mosses in nature?

For what purpose do you pinch off the tip of the root when transplanting cabbage seedlings?

Since 2006

Gardeners, when picking cabbage seedlings, pinch the top of the main root, and when propagating currant bushes, they use stem cuttings on which adventitious roots develop. Both of these plants belong to the class of dicotyledons. Explain what type of root system will be in cabbage grown from these seedlings, and what type of root system will be in currants grown from a stem cutting.

Explain what are the main reasons for “water blooms” in water bodies.

What structural features and vital functions of angiosperms contributed to their prosperity on Earth?

2007

Why does plowing the soil improve the living conditions of cultivated plants?

The process of photosynthesis occurs intensively in the leaves of plants. Does it occur in ripe and unripe fruits? Explain your answer.

Determine which part of the onion bulb is indicated in the figure by the letter B, explain its structure and functions.

It is known that with regular hilling of plants (potatoes, tomatoes, cabbage, strawberries), the plants grow better. Explain how hilling affects plant growth and why this effect is beneficial.

If a mouse is placed under a glass cap that is hermetically sealed, it will soon die. If you place a green plant with the mouse and leave the cap in the light, the mouse will remain alive long time. Explain the reason for these phenomena.

Mushroom pickers are well aware that boletuses often grow under aspens, boletus mushrooms - under birch trees, boletus - under pine and larch trees. What is this phenomenon called and what is its biological meaning?

Find errors in the given text. Indicate the numbers of sentences in which errors were made and explain them.

A flower is the reproductive organ of angiosperms.

The flower is a modified leaf.

The functions of a flower are sexual and asexual reproduction.

The flower is connected to the stem by a peduncle.

A flower has pistils and stamens.

During storage, the weight of potato tubers is reduced, and if the tubers are frozen, they become sweet. What is the reason for these phenomena?

What are the main distinctive features higher plants compared to lower ones?

Scientists have found that coniferous trees(spruce, pine) are less resistant to air pollution by industrial gases than deciduous trees. Explain the reason for this phenomenon.

2008

Why are mushrooms classified as a special kingdom of the organic world?

What are the structural features and vital functions of mushrooms?

What are characteristic features kingdom of mushrooms?

Explain through what tissues and how substances are transported in angiosperms?

Why does plowing improve soil conditions for the living of cultivated plants?

Prove that the rhizome of the plant is a modified shoot.

What processes ensure the movement of water and minerals throughout the plant. Explain your answer.

Name at least 3 features of land plants that allowed them to be the first to colonize land. Justify your answer.

How does sporulation occur in cuckoo flax?

How do angiosperms differ from plants of other divisions?

What is the diversity and adaptability of angiosperms to their way of life?

Why do angiosperms need special protection?

Name plant adaptations that would simultaneously serve as adaptations to opposite environmental conditions (cold-heat, drought-moisture, etc.

Why are large seeds selected for sowing?

What unites and what is the difference between the biological objects depicted in the figure?

What fertilizers and why do you need to add to the soil to get a large head of cabbage?

What fertilizers and why do you need to add to the soil to get large tomato fruits?

What fertilizers and why do you need to add to the soil to get large potato tubers?

What plant crops are used in agriculture to enrich the soil with nitrogen?

Can seeds grow in a garden bed with their roots up and shoots down if they were sown at random?

How are the embryos of dicotyledonous and monocotyledonous plants different?

How do humans use bacteria?

Which cellular structures distinguish plant cell from an animal?

The presentation “Microscopic structure of tissues” is intended for laboratory work in the course “Human Biology” in the 8th grade. Includes instructions for students (“Procedure for completing the work”), a set of electron microscopic photographs of tissues of the human body and a slide for self-test. Allows you to organize the work of the entire class during 1 lesson. Work order: Draw images of tissues Label cells and intercellular substance Indicate types of tissues and explanation...

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Biology lesson in 5th grade on the topic "Mushrooms" Developed on the basis of the Federal State Educational Standard Basic General Education. Includes group work of children, followed by presentation of the result of the work in front of classmates. During the lesson, students use an interactive whiteboard, a document camera, presenting a mushroom clearing and talking about the structure of a mushroom, laptops in which they make a presentation and share a brochure, a network Internet Wi-Fi. The conclusion of the lesson is summed up...

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7th ed., revised. and additional - M.: 2016. - 512 p.

The proposed manual contains theoretical material and options for examination tasks for self-preparation for the Unified State Exam in Biology. All tasks are accompanied by answers and comments. The book is intended for graduates of secondary schools, lyceums, and gymnasiums; it can be used by applicants to prepare for university exams, and will also help biology teachers.

Format: pdf

Size: 5.9 MB

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Performance exam paper in biology will require graduates high school the following knowledge and skills:
- knowledge the most important concepts, patterns and laws relating to the structure, life and development of plant, animal and human organisms, the development of living nature;
- knowledge of the structure and life of plants, animals, humans, the main groups of plants and the classification of animals;
- the ability to substantiate conclusions, operate with concepts when explaining natural phenomena, citing examples from the practice of agricultural and industrial production, healthcare, etc. This skill is given special importance, since it will indicate the meaningfulness of knowledge and the understanding of the material presented by the examinee.