In what year did Napoleon die? Was Napoleon poisoned?

Napoleon Bonaparte was a brilliant commander, diplomat, had excellent intelligence, phenomenal memory and amazing performance. An entire era is named after him, and his deeds came as a shock to most of his contemporaries. His military strategies are in textbooks, and the norms of democracy Western countries based on Napoleonic law.

Napoleon Bonaparte on horseback

The role of this outstanding personality in the history of France is ambiguous. In Spain and Russia he was called the Antichrist, and some researchers consider Napoleon a somewhat embellished hero.

Childhood and youth

A brilliant commander statesman, Emperor Napoleon I Bonaparte was a native of Corsica. Born on August 15, 1769 in the city of Ajaccio into a poor noble family. The parents of the future emperor had eight children. Father Carlo di Buonaparte practiced law, mother Letizia, née Ramolino, raised the children. They were Corsicans by nationality. Bonaparte is the Tuscan version of the surname of the famous Corsican.

Certificate and sacred history he was educated at home, and at the age of six he was sent to private school, at the age of ten - to Autun College, where the boy did not stay long. After college, Brienne continues her studies at military school. In 1784 he entered the Parisian military academy. Upon graduation, he received the rank of lieutenant and from 1785 served in the artillery.

In his early youth, Napoleon lived in solitude and was interested in literature and military affairs. In 1788, while in Corsica, he participated in the development of defensive fortifications, worked on a report on the organization of the militia, etc. He considered literary works to be of paramount importance and hoped to become famous in this field.

Reads with interest books on history, geography, and the size of government revenues European countries, works on the philosophy of legislation, is interested in the ideas of Abbé Raynal. He writes the history of Corsica, the stories “Conversation of Love”, “The Prophet in Disguise”, “The Earl of Essex” and keeps a diary.

The works of young Bonaparte, with the exception of one, remained in manuscripts. In these works the author expresses negative emotions in relation to France, considering it the enslaver of Corsica, and love for the homeland. The recordings of the young Napoleon are political in tone and permeated with a revolutionary spirit.

Napoleon Bonaparte greeted the French Revolution with enthusiasm, and in 1792 he joined the Jacobin Club. After the victory over the British for the capture of Toulon in 1793, he was awarded the rank of brigadier general. This becomes a turning point in his biography, after which a brilliant military career begins.

In 1795, Napoleon distinguished himself during the dispersal of the royalist rebellion, after which he was appointed commander of the army. The Italian campaign undertaken in 1796-1797 under his command demonstrated the talent of the commander and glorified him throughout the continent. In 1798-1799, the Directory sent him on a long-distance military expedition to Syria and Egypt.

The expedition ended in defeat, but it was not considered a failure. He voluntarily leaves the army to fight the Russians under the command of. In 1799, General Napoleon Bonaparte returned to Paris. The Directory regime at this time was already at the peak of the crisis.

Domestic policy

After the coup and the proclamation of the consulate in 1802, he became consul, and in 1804 - emperor. In the same year, with the participation of Napoleon, a new Civil Code, based on Roman law.

Domestic policy, carried out by the emperor, is aimed at strengthening his own power, which, in his opinion, guaranteed the preservation of the gains of the revolution. Carries out reforms in the field of law and administration. He undertook a number of reforms in the legal and administrative spheres. Some of these innovations still form the basis of the functioning of states. Napoleon ended anarchy. A law was passed to ensure the right to property. French citizens were recognized as equal in rights and opportunities.

Mayors were appointed to cities and villages, and the French Bank was created. The economy began to revive, which could not but please even the poor. Military recruitment allowed the poor to earn money. Lyceums opened throughout the country. At the same time, the police network expanded, a secret department began operating, and the press was subjected to strict censorship. Gradually there was a return to the monarchical system of government.

An important event For the French government, there was an agreement concluded with the Pope, thanks to which the legitimacy of Bonaparte’s power was recognized in exchange for the proclamation of Catholicism as the main religion of the majority of citizens. Society was divided into two camps in relation to the emperor. Some citizens stated that Napoleon betrayed the revolution, but Bonaparte himself believed that he was a successor of its ideas.

Foreign policy

The beginning of Napoleon's reign occurred at a time when France was at war with Austria and England. The new victorious Italian campaign eliminated the threat at the French borders. The result of military action was the subjugation of almost all European countries. In territories that were not part of France, kingdoms subordinate to the emperor were created, the rulers of which were members of his family. Russia, Prussia and Austria form an alliance.

At first, Napoleon was perceived as the savior of his homeland. The people were proud of his achievements, and there was a national upsurge in the country. But the 20-year war tired everyone. The Continental blockade proclaimed by Bonaparte, which led to the collapse of the English economy, its light industry, forced the British to stop trade relations with European countries. The crisis hit the port cities of France, supplies were stopped colonial goods, to which Europe has already become accustomed. Even the French court suffered from a lack of coffee, sugar, and tea.

The situation was worsened by the economic crisis of 1810. The bourgeoisie did not want to spend money on wars, since the threat of attack by other countries was a thing of the past. She understood that the goal foreign policy the emperor - expanding his own power and protecting the interests of the dynasty.

The collapse of the empire began in 1812, when Russian troops defeated Napoleonic army. Creation anti-French coalition, which included Russia, Austria, Prussia and Sweden, became the collapse of the empire in 1814. This year she defeated the French and entered Paris.

Napoleon had to abdicate the throne, but he retained the status of emperor. He was exiled to the island of Elba in the Mediterranean Sea. However, the exiled emperor did not stay there long.

French citizens and military personnel were unhappy with the situation and feared the return of the Bourbons and nobility. Bonaparte escapes and on March 1, 1815, moves to Paris, where he is greeted with enthusiastic exclamations from the townspeople. Hostilities resume. This period went down in history as the “Hundred Days”. The final defeat of Napoleon's army occurred on June 18, 1815 after the Battle of Waterloo.

The deposed emperor was captured by the British and sent into exile again. This time he found himself in Atlantic Ocean on the island of St. Elena, where he lived for another 6 years. But not all the British had a negative attitude towards Napoleon. In 1815, impressed by the fate of the deposed emperor, he created the “Napoleonic Cycle” of five poems, after which the poet was reproached for being unpatriotic. Among the British there was another fan of Napoleon - Princess Charlotte, the daughter of the future George IV, on whose support the emperor at one time counted, but she died in 1817 during childbirth.

Personal life

From a young age, Napoleon Bonaparte was distinguished by his amorousness. Contrary to popular belief, Napoleon's height was above average by the standards that existed in those years - 168 cm, which could not help but attract the attention of the opposite sex. His masculine features and posture, which are visible in the reproductions presented in the form of photographs, aroused the interest of the ladies around him.

The first lover to whom the young man proposed was 16-year-old Desiree-Evgenia-Clara. But at that time his career in Paris began to develop rapidly, and Napoleon could not resist the charm of Parisian women. In the capital of France, Bonaparte preferred to have affairs with older women.

An important event personal life Napoleon, which took place in 1796, was his marriage to Josephine Beauharnais. Bonaparte's beloved turned out to be 6 years older than him. She was born into a plantation family on the island of Martinique in the Caribbean. From the age of 16 she was married to Viscount Alexandre de Beauharnais and gave birth to two children. Six years after marriage, she divorced her husband and at one time lived in Paris, then in her father’s house. After the revolution of 1789 she again went to France. In Paris he supported her ex-husband, who by that time occupied a high political position. But in 1794 the Viscount was executed, and Josephine herself spent some time in prison.

A year later, having miraculously gained freedom, Josephine met Bonaparte, who was not yet so famous. According to some reports, at the time of their acquaintance she was in a love affair with the then ruler of France, Barras, but this did not stop him from becoming a witness at the wedding of Bonaparte and Josephine. In addition, Barras granted the groom the position of commander of the Italian Army of the Republic.

Researchers claim that the lovers had many things in common. Both were born far from France on small islands, experienced hardships, were imprisoned, both were dreamers. After the wedding, Napoleon went to the positions of the Italian army, and Josephine remained in Paris. After the Italian campaign, Bonaparte was sent to Egypt. Josephine still did not follow her husband, but enjoyed social life in the capital of France.

Tormented by jealousy, Napoleon began to have favorites. According to researchers, Napoleon had from 20 to 50 lovers. A series of novels followed, which led to the emergence of illegitimate heirs. Two are known: Alexander Colonna-Walewski and Charles Leon. The Colonna-Walewski family has survived to this day. Alexander's mother was the daughter of a Polish aristocrat, Maria Valevskaya.

Josephine could not have children, so in 1810 Napoleon divorced her. Initially, Bonaparte planned to become related to the Romanov imperial family. He asked Anna Pavlovna's hand in marriage from her brother. But the Russian emperor did not want to become related to a ruler of non-royal blood. In many ways, these disagreements influenced the cooling of relations between France and Russia. Napoleon marries the daughter of the Emperor of Austria, Marie-Louise, who gave birth to an heir in 1811. This marriage was not approved by the French public.

Ironically, it was Josephine’s grandson, and not Napoleon’s, who later became the French emperor. Her descendants reign in Denmark, Belgium, Norway, Sweden and Luxembourg. There are no descendants of Napoleon left, since his son had no children, and he himself died young.

After being deported to the island of Elba, Bonaparte expected to see his legal wife next to him, but Marie-Louise went to her father’s domain. Maria Valevskaya arrived to Bonaparte with her son. Returning to France, Napoleon dreamed of seeing only Marie Louise, but the emperor never received an answer to all the letters sent to Austria.

Death

After the defeat at Waterloo, Bonaparte whiled away his time on the island of St. Elena. The last years of his life were filled with suffering from incurable disease. On May 5, 1821, Napoleon I Bonaparte died, he was 52 years old.

According to one version, the cause of death was oncology, according to another - arsenic poisoning. Researchers who support the version of stomach cancer appeal to the results of the autopsy, as well as to the heredity of Bonaparte, whose father died of stomach cancer. Other historians mention that Napoleon gained weight before his death. And it became indirect sign arsenic poisoning, as cancer patients lose weight. In addition, traces of high concentrations of arsenic were later found in the emperor’s hair.

According to Napoleon's will, his remains were transported to France in 1840, where they were reburied in the Parisian Invalides on the territory of the cathedral. Around the tomb of the former French emperor are sculptures made by Jean-Jacques Pradier.

Memory

The memory of the exploits of Napoleon Bonaparte is captured in art. Among them are opuses by Hector Berlioz, literary works,. In cinema, his image is captured in films of different eras, starting with silent films. A genus of trees growing on the African continent is named after the commander, as well as a culinary masterpiece - a layer cake with cream. Napoleon's letters were published in France under Napoleon III and were sorted into quotations.

Quotes

History is only a version of events that happened in our interpretation.

The depths of baseness to which a person can fall are immeasurable.

There are two levers with which people can be moved - fear and self-interest.

Revolution is a conviction backed by bayonets.

More likely to meet good ruler who came to power through inheritance rather than through elections.

On the evening of May 5, 1821, on a small island - the island of St. Helena - Napoleon Bonaparte died at the age of 51. Death is generally mysterious; the death of a great man is almost always surrounded by mysteries. Napoleon was no exception. There are several different versions regarding his death. Another hypothesis was recently proposed by experts from the Russian Center for the Search for Napoleon's Treasure.

Two doctors pronounced him dead at 5:49 p.m. Three weeks before his death, Napoleon warned his doctor: “You will only know what I am suffering from after you cut me open.” The autopsy was performed the next day at 2 pm in the presence of 17 people. Six of the seven doctors present are British and the 30-year-old Corsican pathologist Francesco Antomarchi, the former emperor's personal physician during the last 18 months of his life.

At that time, doctors could not reach a consensus regarding the cause of death. Four documents appeared that differently interpreted the disease that contributed to fatal outcome. In each of them, the presence of a stomach ulcer near the pylorus, i.e., the opening connecting the stomach with the intestines, was noted. Although none of the doctors diagnosed cancer, some historians began to argue that Bonaparte died from the same disease as his father - cancer of the stomach or pylorus.

In December 1840, Napoleon's ashes returned triumphantly to Paris, where, before the ceremonial burial began, the authorities allowed Dr. Guillard to open the coffin for a few minutes to examine the body. Dr. Chaplin in 1913 reproduced a brief report of this examination in the monograph “The Illness and Death of Napoleon Bonaparte.” Those present were amazed by the well-preserved body of the statesman, which was attributed to the influence of the tropical climate of St. Helena. Guillard reported: “The skin of his face was soft and elastic, the emperor’s facial features changed so slightly that those who saw him during his lifetime immediately recognized him. Overall, there was the impression that he had recently been buried.” Unfortunately, two silver vessels with a heart and a stomach were never removed from the coffin. Thus, the way for historians to objectively establish the cause of Bonaparte’s death was completely cut off. We had to look for indirect evidence.

Half a century ago, in 1961, Swedish surgeon Dr. Sten Forshwood published a book with the sensational title "Who Killed Napoleon?" A doctor from Scandinavia based his work on a study of Napoleon's hair taken between 1816 and 1821, which was carried out by Dr. Hamilton-Smith and Dr. Lenihan from Glasgow. A significantly elevated concentration of arsenic was found in the hair of the late commander and ex-emperor of France.

The not unfounded version of Napoleon's poisoning was not just made up. The emperor, excommunicated from power by a coalition of European powers, was real danger for some crowned heads. In 1815, Napoleon proved this by fleeing the island of Elba to once again control the destinies of the continent within a hundred days. Particularly alive, Napoleon frightened the unpopular monarch Louis XVIII of Bourbon, who was returned to the French throne through the efforts of foreign armies.

Six days before his death, Bonaparte wrote to his doctor: “After my death, which is not long to wait, I want you to perform an autopsy on my body ... I especially recommend that you carefully examine my stomach and set out the results in an accurate and detailed report, which you will hand over to my son... I ask, I oblige you to conduct such a study with all care."

This study was carried out by specialists from the Russian Center for the Search of Napoleon's Treasure (CPKN) under the leadership of historian Alexander Seregin, who believes that Napoleon was indeed poisoned, but not on purpose. For this purpose, the experts of the Center for Clinical Research had to carefully study the last days, hours and minutes of the dying person’s life. After his death, Napoleon took revenge on his hated jailer, Sir Hudson Lowe. His accusation against the governor of the island will spread across Europe: “I am dying prematurely at the hands of the English oligarchy and the killer it hired. I am sure the English people will avenge me.”

Supporters of the poisoning version named the suspects. The first went to one of the emperor's closest companions, Count Charles-Tristan de Montolon, a cuckold whose beautiful wife allegedly cheated on him with Napoleon. In addition, he was suspected of secret sympathy for the Bourbons. Forshwood even hypothesized that arsenic was given to the emperor in small doses starting from the time of the Battle of Leipzig. Historians admit this possibility. After this bloody battle, many French, who had previously idolized their commander, began to hate the despot who destroyed people in the name of his lust for power.

“Napoleon really was killed by arsenic. But here it is necessary to add that at that time arsenic was widespread folk remedy, it was widely used in everyday life and in medicine. You know that this poison is still used by dentists to kill the nerve in the tooth? And in those days, at the beginning of the 19th century, wine barrels were treated with arsenic, added to paint, and used in forges. Smart traders fed arsenic to horses to make the animals look fatter. But in order for a person to be poisoned to death, he must take a large dose or take arsenic for several years,” believes Alexander Seregin.

In addition, experts from the Central Clinical Research Center, relying on modern forensic techniques, found that Napoleon was “healed to death” by doctors and associates who treated him in accordance with their idea of ​​​​the benefits of small doses of arsenic for hematopoiesis. In addition, arsenic compounds were constantly released from the wallpaper in his room.

The latest version is not new at all. The famous doctor and writer Anton Neumayr, in his book “Dictators in the Mirror of Medicine,” mentions the curtains painted “Parisian green” in Bonaparte’s bedroom, which contained copper and arsenic: “He was constantly forced to inhale arsenic vapors that arose under the influence of the humid atmosphere of his bedroom.” .

“In general, Napoleon just became a victim of ordinary ignorance, no matter how beautiful the versions of conspiracy and deliberate poisoning were,” Alexander Seregin is sure.

Let us turn again to Anton Neumayr, who refers to the results of a study of Napoleon's curl at the Institute of Nuclear Physics medical research in Toronto, which showed, contrary to previously existing ideas, only a slight excess of the normal arsenic concentration. “On the contrary,” writes Neumayr, “a significant excess of the normal content of antimony was discovered. This substance was part of numerous medicinal mixtures of the 18th century and the beginning of the 19th century, so if intoxication did occur, it was a consequence of the therapeutic methods of that time".

However, Dr. Forshwood also stated that Napoleon’s doctors with their destructive - with modern scientific point vision - through therapeutic methods they themselves contributed to the poisoning of their patient. He points out, for example, that Dr Arnott, apparently professionally incompetent, shortly before Napoleon's death prescribed him an extremely high dose of calomel (10 grains), three times the usual dosage, with almond milk. According to Forshwood, the toxic compound mercury cyanide could be formed from mercuric chloride, which could lead to death.

Napoleon Bonaparte died on May 5, 1821 on the secluded island of St. Helens in the Atlantic Ocean, where the deposed emperor was sent into exile. He was buried on this island. Almost twenty years later, his remains were transported to France and now rest in the Paris Invalides.

As you know, Napoleon tried several times to escape from St. Helena, but all such attempts ended in failure. However, there is an assumption that Bonaparte still managed to escape. A similar version is shared by some historians, including the American researcher T. Wheeler. In 1974, his book “Who Lies Here” was published in New York. New research on the last years of Napoleon."

Wheeler's hypothesis seems to be confirmed by the following curious fact. A letter from the wife of the French general Bertrand has been preserved, who in August 1818 wrote from St. Helena to Paris: “Victory, victory! Napoleon left the island." This letter was intercepted by the British, and the prisoner's security was strengthened.

This is not the only legend associated with the mysterious rescue of Napoleon. August 7, 1815, when English ship With Napoleon already approaching the island of St. Helena, in a village in the French Alps a man appeared who called himself Felix. He looked exactly like a deposed monarch. The peasants immediately notified the local authorities about this. The royal gendarmes quickly arrived, arrested Felix and put him in prison. No one else saw this mysterious man...

In 1822, the secretary of the prefecture of the city of Mand, Armand Marquise, reported that the new curate, Father Hilarion, who bought a dilapidated castle near the city, bore a striking resemblance to the deposed emperor. He had the opportunity to see this for himself. This story, however, had no continuation. Apparently, Father Hilarion managed to convince the authorities that he was not Bonaparte.

The French emperor had several doubles. Since 1808, one of them was Corporal François Rabot. After Napoleon's abdication and exile, Rabaud returned to his native village in the department of Meuse and took up peasant labor. In the fall of 1818, a richly dressed gentleman with a military bearing appeared in his village, looking for “his old friend Francois.” Soon Rabo and his sister disappeared from the village.

The police searched for the former corporal throughout France and finally found his sister in the city of Tours, who suddenly became rich. When asked where her brother was, she answered, laughing, that he became a sailor and went on a long voyage. They got nothing more from her...

According to Wheeler, Francois Rabaud was brought to St. Helena and replaced as the emperor. The corporal had successfully played the role of the French ex-emperor since the autumn of 1818; in any case, the British authorities did not seem to suspect anything. By the way, all that the English sentries could do was look through the window into Napoleon’s bedroom once a day to make sure that he was still there. Even the commissars of the allied powers could not visit the deposed emperor.

Outwardly, Napoleon did not change, but became forgetful, often confused in the obvious facts of his old life. And his handwriting became different. Some of his inner circle soon returned to France. On May 5, 1821, Napoleon (or Francois Rabaud) died, according to the official version from stomach cancer.

What about Bonaparte who fled, where did he go? According to Wheeler, Napoleon went to Italy, to Verona. Together with his companion, the Italian Petrucci, he opened a small optics store there and jewelry. The people of Verona rarely saw this Frenchman, who looked very much like Napoleon. His name was Monsieur Revard; he was almost never in the city or even in his store. Five years passed like this.

Another thirty years passed. Petrucci, already an old man, suddenly appeared before the magistrate and made a statement under oath that his companion in Verona for five years was Napoleon Bonaparte himself. So says the legend.

The letter that so suddenly moved Napoleon-Révard from his seat was supposedly from his wife Marie-Louise, the former French Empress, who, after her husband's expulsion, returned with her son to Vienna. In the letter she wrote that his twelve-year-old son, Francois-Charles-Joseph, was sick with scarlet fever in severe form. Napoleon immediately went to Vienna. On the night of September 4, 1823, he climbed over the stone fence of Schönbrunn Palace and was shot by sentries.

In the morning, the police arrived at the scene, drew up a report and left. Marie-Louise ordered to bury the murdered man in the park in an unmarked grave, but next to her family crypt...

In 1956, London officially announced that part of Napoleon's intestines with traces of a bayonet or bullet wound was kept in Britain. Perhaps these were traces of that tragic September night in 1823?

There is another version concerning the last years of Napoleon’s life and his death. In 1969, a book by two French historians entitled “The British, Give Us Back Napoleon” was published in France. It was stated there that in May 1821, it was not Napoleon or Rabo who was buried on St. Helena, but the former housekeeper of the emperor, the Italian Francesco Cipriani.

Now let’s move away from all kinds of legends and traditions concerning the death of Napoleon Bonaparte, and try to approach the events of almost two centuries ago somewhat objectively. Let's assume that in the fall of 1818 it was possible to replace the French emperor with his double, and Napoleon managed to escape from the island. In the United States, in New Orleans, there was then a large colony of French Bonapartists led by Napoleon's elder brother. There Bonaparte could live quite legally, surrounded by honor and respect. What was he supposed to do in Europe, especially in Italy, which was then largely occupied by Austrian troops?

François Rabaud was indeed Napoleon's double, but after he returned to his village in 1815, traces of him were lost. Everything else is a legend, the authenticity of which can no longer be verified.

Papers written and dictated by Napoleon Bonaparte last years and even months of his life, contain references to hundreds of things, many details that could only be known to the emperor. Napoleon did not experience any memory loss.

Apparently former emperor The French actually died in exile in 1821. He died quite early: he was not even 52 years old. His death on a distant Atlantic island gave rise to many rumors, and then legends that have survived to this day.

French statesman and commander, Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte was born on August 15, 1769 in the city of Ajaccio on the island of Corsica. He came from the family of an ordinary Corsican nobleman.

In 1784 he graduated from the Brienne Military School, and in 1785 from the Paris Military School. Professional military service began in 1785 as a sub-lieutenant of artillery in the royal army.

From the first days of the Great French Revolution of 1789-1799, Bonaparte became involved in political struggle on the island of Corsica, joined the most radical wing of the Republicans. In 1792 in Valence he joined the Jacobin Club.

In 1793, supporters of France in Corsica, where Bonaparte was at that time, were defeated. Conflict with Corsican separatists forced him to flee the island to France. Bonaparte became commander of an artillery battery in Nice. He distinguished himself in the battle against the British at Toulon, was promoted to brigadier general and appointed chief of artillery of the Alpine Army. After the counter-revolutionary coup in June 1794, Bonaparte was removed from office and arrested for connections with the Jacobins, but was soon released. He was listed in the reserve of the War Ministry, and in September 1795, after refusing the offered position of commander of an infantry brigade, he was dismissed from the army.

In October 1795, a member of the Directory (French government in 1795-1799), Paul Barras, who led the fight against the monarchist conspiracy, took Napoleon as an assistant. Bonaparte distinguished himself during the suppression of the royalist rebellion in October 1795, for which he was appointed commander of the troops of the Paris garrison. In February 1796, he was appointed commander of the Italian Army, at the head of which he carried out the victorious Italian campaign (1796-1797).

In 1798-1801 he led the Egyptian expedition, which, despite the capture of Alexandria and Cairo and the defeat of the Mamelukes in the Battle of the Pyramids, was defeated.

In October 1799, Bonaparte arrived in Paris, where a situation of acute political crisis reigned. Relying on influential circles of the bourgeoisie, on November 9-10, 1799, he carried out a coup d'etat. The government of the Directory was overthrown, and the French Republic was led by three consuls, the first of whom was Napoleon.

The concordat (agreement) concluded with the Pope in 1801 provided Napoleon with the support of the Catholic Church.

In August 1802 he achieved his appointment as consul for life.

In June 1804, Bonaparte was proclaimed Emperor Napoleon I.

On December 2, 1804, during a magnificent ceremony held in the cathedral Notre Dame of Paris With the participation of the Pope, Napoleon crowned himself Emperor of the French.

In March 1805, he was crowned in Milan, after Italy recognized him as its king.

Napoleon I's foreign policy was aimed at achieving political and economic hegemony in Europe. With his rise to power, France entered a period of almost continuous wars. Thanks to military successes, Napoleon significantly expanded the territory of the empire and made most of the states of Western and Central Europe dependent on France.

Napoleon was not only Emperor of France, which extended to the left bank of the Rhine, but also King of Italy, mediator of the Swiss Confederation and Protector of the Confederation of the Rhine. His brothers became kings: Joseph in Naples, Louis in Holland, Jerome in Westphalia.

This empire was comparable in its territory to the empire of Charlemagne or the Holy Roman Empire of Charles V.

In 1812, Napoleon launched a campaign against Russia, which ended with him complete defeat and became the beginning of the collapse of the empire. The entry of anti-French coalition troops into Paris in March 1814 forced Napoleon I to abdicate the throne (April 6, 1814). The victorious allies retained the title of emperor to Napoleon and gave him possession of the island of Elba in the Mediterranean Sea.

In 1815, Napoleon, taking advantage of the people's dissatisfaction with the policies of the Bourbons who replaced him in France and the disagreements that arose between the victorious powers at the Congress of Vienna, tried to regain the throne. In March 1815, at the head of a small detachment, he unexpectedly landed in the south of France and three weeks later entered Paris without firing a single shot. The secondary reign of Napoleon I, which went down in history as the “Hundred Days,” did not last long. The Emperor did not live up to the hopes placed on him by the French people. All this, as well as the defeat of Napoleon I at the Battle of Waterloo, led him to a second abdication and exile to the island of St. Helena in the Atlantic Ocean, where he died on May 5, 1821. In 1840, Napoleon's ashes were transported to Paris, to the Invalides

World military historiography highly values ​​the activities of Napoleon I as a commander who skillfully used the objective conditions created by the French bourgeois revolution for the development of military affairs. His military leadership had big influence on the development of military art of the 19th century.

The material was prepared based on information from open sources

Almost 200 years have passed since the great Emperor of France, Napoleon Bonaparte, passed away in 1821. Various commissions continually declared new versions of death “official”, but it is still not clear why the famous Corsican died.

Probably, a serious study of Bonaparte's death began in 1955, when the Swedish toxicologist Sten Forshwood accidentally became acquainted with the memoirs of Louis Marchand, a bodyguard and servant of the Emperor of France. In Marchand's work, the Swede came across some rather interesting details regarding the state of the emperor's health in the last years of his life. To his amazement, the Swede discovered 22 symptoms of Napoleon’s arsenic poisoning in his memoirs! Forshwood also read in Marchand’s memoirs about interesting tradition which Napoleon followed: he often gave his locks of hair as souvenirs to friends. Having collected all the information received, the Scandinavian set to work, wanting to establish the true causes of death based on the study of hair. The toxicologist discovered some very interesting information after reading the autopsy report. It was necessary to immediately look for samples of the emperor's curls!

Fortunately, they were found, and the researcher, with the help of the Scot Smith, analyzed the strands of 1816-1818, and also 1821. Napoleon's hair, sealed in small containers, was bombarded with thermal neutrons at the Harwell Institute of Atomic Energy in a suburb of London. As a result of the experiment, it was possible to estimate with very high accuracy the amount of arsenic in the emperor's hair. To ensure scientific impartiality in hair samples, Forshwood for a long time did not reveal the true motives of his work, since rumors about Bonaparte’s death circulated for many years.

As a result, there were 10.4 micrograms of arsenic per 1 gram of imperial hair, which indicated large quantities harmful substance in the body of the former ruler of France. The norm was exceeded by almost 15 times!

Forshwood believed that the emperor was poisoned, concluding that Napoleon was fed arsenic for six whole years. The Swede was inspired by the idea of ​​deliberate poisoning of Bonaparte by the mysterious death secret agent Emperor Cipriani. According to eyewitness accounts, Cipriani was poisoned in one go. It is likely that he realized about some kind of conspiracy and himself became a victim of poisoners. It is worth noting, however, that no autopsy was performed on Napoleon’s close associate, so versions of his poisoning may simply be speculation. However, Cipriani's grave subsequently mysteriously disappeared from the cemetery, and Count Charles de Montholon, who registered civil acts on the island of St. Helena, "forgot" to reflect in any way the fact of Cipriani's death. Supporters of the poisoning version believed that it was the count who needed Napoleon’s death. Canadian writer Ben Wider is sure that Montolon was in the service of the English crown and carried out the orders of the British rulers, or simply took revenge on the emperor for his relationship with the count’s wife. Probably, the disappearance of Cipriani's grave can be explained by the following coincidence of circumstances. After rumors about the secret transportation of Bonaparte's body to England and his burial in Westminster Abbey, Cipriani's body was exhumed, since investigators believed that instead of the emperor, his servant, who looked very similar to Napoleon, could have been placed in the coffin.

After the first preliminary conclusions, Forshwood resorted to a more thorough analysis, wanting to find out in what doses arsenic entered the body of the exiled ruler. If arsenic was ingested at regular intervals and in equal doses, it could be assumed that the poisoner added the poison to Napoleon gradually, following a certain plan.

The analysis showed that highest doses The emperor received arsenic from the beginning of October 1817 to November 1, December 11, 16, 30, January 26-29, February 26-27, 1818, and also March 13.

Subsequently, Pascal Kintz, president of the International Association of Forensic Toxicologists, issued a statement in which he confirmed the presence of large doses of arsenic in the emperor's hair and was not afraid to conclude that Napoleon was poisoned. However, it is worth noting that the study was carried out at the request of Ben Weider and was paid for at his expense. As you already understand, Wider is an ardent supporter of the poisoning version, and the main culprit, in his opinion, is the Comte de Montholon. In addition, the Canadian writer is a billionaire who has made a lot of money from his sensational books about Bonaparte. It is possible that Kintz’s research was not entirely objective and was more intended to prove to the public the “absolute” truth of Wider’s works, increasing their ratings around the world and increasing the already huge profits of the Canadian writer.

Such data, by and large, do not prove anything, since the entry of arsenic into Napoleon’s body could not have occurred at all by the will of the poisoner, but in a completely different way. For example, winemakers of that time treated barrels with a composition that included large doses of arsenic. As you know, Bonaparte did not refuse to drink, so he could receive doses not from Montolon at all, but of his own free will - over a glass of wine from the cellars. Arsenic was also widely used to restore hair and treat ammunition.

It is widely believed among French historians that the cause of the death of the great Corsican could have been fumes from arsenic-soaked wallpaper in Napoleon's house on the island of St. Helena. Scientists have at their disposal the only copy of the fatal wallpaper from Bonaparte's bedroom, a small piece measuring less than 10 square centimeters. A piece was torn from the wall of the emperor's bedroom in 1825, 4 years after his death. Having ended up in the hands of one of the families of high society in Britain, it was kept in the family museum until 2003, when it was sold at auction in the city of Ludlow. It is believed that this is the only example of red and gold wallpaper that has survived to this day, so researchers must be very careful and attentive when studying it.

Leading French expert pathologists, for their part, did not give an exact answer to the question of whether Napoleon died from arsenic poisoning. In their opinion, the only way to reliably verify this is to exhume the body of the emperor, which now rests in the crypt of the Invalides in Paris.

A senior representative of the main forensic laboratory of the National Gendarmerie, Roland Molinaro, and Ivan Ricordel, head of the toxicology department of the Paris police, in turn, said that only a few hairs of Napoleon were used in the study and, due to such a limited number of samples, no definite conclusions could be drawn. Molinaro noticed that when eating oysters, the arsenic content in the human body increases by 20-30 times. "Did Napoleon eat oysters before he died?" - the expert asked ironically.

Chantal Bismuth, head of the Paris anti-toxicology center, warned against hasty conclusions, noting that arsenic was widely used in limited doses in 19th-century medicines. Researchers from the American University of Sheffield, led by Stephen Karch, echo him. However, they even believe that the reason for the death of the great French leader lies in improper treatment. "The doctors overdid it!" - say scientists from the United States. In their opinion, Napoleon was treated with poisonous colorless salt, antimony tartrate and potassium. This could cause potassium deficiency in the body, which leads to a fatal heart disease called fusiform arrhythmia. Probably the “point” was left by a 600-milligram dose of mercury dichloride given to Napoleon to cleanse his intestines two days before his death.

Just recently, a manuscript was discovered in Scotland claiming that Napoleon died of cancer. The document, found by auction house Thomson, Roddick & Medcalf, was written by a doctor who examined Napoleon's body after his death on May 5, 1821. The paper was in items that were given to the auction house by a British man living in a cottage in the south of Scotland. Representatives of the auction house claim that the author of the found manuscript was one of those who had to be present at the autopsy. However, the document does not contain the name of the doctor himself - the manuscript is not signed. According to auction house spokesman Steve Lees, the document claims that the deceased emperor had a greatly enlarged stomach, which apparently caused Napoleon severe pain.

Is Thomson, Roddick & Medcalf trying to make a profit by releasing this anonymous protocol to the public?

The version of stomach cancer is supported by Swiss and English researchers. Not to mention the attending physician of Napoleon himself, Antommarchi, whose version was questioned in the 60s of the twentieth century after the unexpected discovery of Stan Forshwood. Opponents of the version of stomach cancer argue that in case of illness this kind Bonaparte would not have been able to eat normally. However, Napoleon's large dying weight does not prove anything, says Alessandro Lugli and his colleagues from the University Hospital in Basel.

According to the Swiss, it is not the weight itself that is important, but its change during illness. After conducting an experiment, they established a relationship between body weight and trouser size. Armed with the knowledge gained, the researchers found out that in the period from 1804 to 1820, Napoleon gained considerable weight: his weight increased from 68 kg to 90 kg, which was not prevented by anyone. constant stress, associated with endless battles, no links - first to Elba and then to St. Helena. However, already in 1821, a few months before his death, the emperor began to lose weight and lost weight to 80 kilograms.

Pathologists came to the conclusion that at the end of 1820 Napoleon developed malignant tumor. It began to grow quite quickly, so the real reason death could have been internal hemorrhage caused by stomach cancer.

This version of the death of the great ruler of France is, no doubt, less tempting for those who want to find sensations everywhere. However, in my opinion, it is she who is more plausible. It just so happens that something unusual and sensational arouses unconditional interest. Is this why they look for a conspiracy in any tragic accident? Maybe. The fact of material interest cannot be ruled out - let us recall, for example, the Canadian Wider.

In any case, I believe that there was no premeditated murder. Moreover, extended over years. If arsenic is somehow “to blame” for the death of Napoleon, then the conclusion about poisoning by attackers is not obvious: this substance was found too often in Everyday life that time. And the entry of large doses into Bonaparte’s body at certain periods of time can be explained by some medical procedures or something similar. To be honest, there is little point in poisoning Napoleon for so long, when it was enough to add arsenic to the emperor’s food once.

I wonder what the results will be if we calculate the amount of arsenic in the body of other residents of that era and the same position? I wouldn’t be surprised if they were somewhat similar to Napoleonic ones. It’s just that Napoleon’s death is the death of a great man, the death of the majority is inevitable. It is clear which attracts the crowd more. There will be those who want to know the “truth” - there will also be writers who are ready to provide this “truth”.

Maxim Volchenkov