Natural and artificial languages. Difference between natural and formal languages

1. Logic and language.The subject of the study of logic is forms and laws correct thinking. Thinking is a function human brain. Labor contributed to the separation of man from the environment of animals, and was the foundation for the emergence of consciousness (including thinking) and language in people. Thinking is inextricably linked with language. Language, according to K. Marx, there is immediate reality of thought. During the collective labor activity people had a need to communicate and transmit their thoughts to each other, without which the organization of collective labor processes itself was impossible.

The functions of natural language are numerous and multifaceted. Language is a means everyday communication people, a means of communication in scientific and practical activities. Language allows you to transfer and receive accumulated knowledge, practical skills and life experience from one generation to another, carry out the process of training and educating the younger generation. Language The following functions are also characteristic: to store information, to be a means of expressing emotions, to be a means of cognition.

Language is a sign information system, a product of human spiritual activity. Accumulated information is transmitted using signs (words) of language.

Speech can be oral or written, audible or non-audio (as, for example, in the case of the deaf-mute), external (to others) or internal, speech expressed through natural or artificial language. By using scientific language, which is based on natural language, formulates the principles of philosophy, history, geography, archeology, geology, medicine (using, along with “living” national languages, the now “dead” Latin language) and many other sciences.

Language is not only a means of communication, but also the most important component culture of every people.

On the basis of natural languages, artificial languages ​​of science arose. These include the languages ​​of mathematics, symbolic logic, chemistry, physics, as well as algorithmic computer programming languages ​​that have received wide application in modern computers and systems. Programming languages ​​are sign systems used to describe the processes of solving problems on a computer. Currently, there is an increasing tendency to develop principles for “communication” between a person and a computer in natural language, so that computers can be used without intermediaries—programmers.

A sign is a material object (phenomenon, event) that acts as a representative of some other object, property or relationship and is used for acquiring, storing, processing and transmitting messages (information, knowledge).

Signs are divided into linguistic and non-linguistic. Non-linguistic signs include copy signs (for example, photographs, fingerprints, reproductions, etc.), attribute signs, or indicator signs (for example, smoke is a sign of fire, elevated temperature body - a sign of illness), signs-signals (for example, a bell - a sign of the beginning or end of a lesson), signs-symbols (for example, road signs) and other types of signs. There is a special science - semiotics, which is general theory signs. Varieties of signs are linguistic signs. One of essential functions linguistic signs consists in their designation of objects. Names are used to designate objects.

A name is a word or phrase that designates a specific object. (The words “designation”, “naming”, “name” are considered as synonyms.) The subject here is understood in a very broad sense: these are things, properties, relationships, processes, phenomena, etc. of both nature and public life, mental activity of people, products of their imagination and the results of abstract thinking. So, a name is always the name of some object. Although objects are changeable and fluid, they retain qualitative certainty, which is denoted by the name of the given object.

2. The language of logic and the language of law. The necessary connection between thinking and language, in which language acts as the material shell of thoughts, means that identifying logical structures is possible only by analyzing linguistic expressions. Just as you can get to the kernel of a nut only by opening its shell, so logical forms can only be identified through language analysis.

In order to master logical-linguistic analysis, let us briefly consider the structure and functions of language, the relationship between logical and grammatical categories, as well as principles of construction special language logic.

Language is symbolic Information system, which performs the function of generating, storing and transmitting information in the process of understanding reality and communication between people.

Main building material When constructing a language, the signs used in it appear. A sign is any sensually perceived (visually, auditorily or otherwise) object that acts as a representative of another object. Among the various signs, we distinguish two types: image signs and symbol signs.

Signs-images have a certain resemblance to the designated objects. Examples of such signs: copies of documents; fingerprints; photographs; some road signs depicting children, pedestrians and other objects. Signs-symbols have no resemblance to the objects designated. For example: musical notes; Morse code characters; letters in the alphabets of national languages.

3. Natural and artificial languages. By origin, languages ​​are either natural or artificial.

Natural languages- These are sound (speech) and then graphic (writing) information sign systems that have historically developed in society. They arose to consolidate and transfer accumulated information in the process of communication between people. Natural languages ​​act as carriers of the centuries-old culture of peoples. They are distinguished by rich expressive capabilities and universal coverage of various areas of life.

Constructed languages are auxiliary sign systems created on the basis of natural languages ​​for the accurate and economical transmission of scientific and other information. They are constructed using natural language or a previously constructed artificial language. A language that acts as a means of constructing or learning another language is called a metalanguage, the main one is called an object language. A metalanguage, as a rule, has richer expressive capabilities compared to an object language.

Constructed languages varying degrees rigor is widely used in modern science and technology: chemistry, mathematics, theoretical physics, computer technology, cybernetics, communications, shorthand.

4. Principles of constructing formalized logic languages.

Formalized language– an artificial language of logic, designed to reproduce the logical forms of natural language contexts, as well as express logical laws and methods of correct reasoning in logical theories constructed in a given language.

The construction of a formalized language begins with specifying it alphabet– a collection of initial, primitive symbols. The alphabet includes logical symbols (signs logical operations and relations, e.g. propositional connectives and quantifiers), non-logical symbols (parameters of descriptive components of natural language) and technical symbols (e.g. parentheses). Then the so-called rules for the formation of complex language signs from simple ones are formulated - they are set Various types well-formed expressions. Their most important type are formulas - analogues of natural language statements.

Distinctive feature formalized language is the effectiveness of the definitions of all its syntactic categories: the question of whether an arbitrary symbol or sequence of alphabetic symbols belongs to a particular class of linguistic expressions is resolved algorithmically, in a finite number of steps.

Sometimes formalized languages, along with the alphabet and rules of formation, include so-called transformation rules - deduction procedures, precise rules for transitions from one sequence of symbols to another. In this case, the formalized language is essentially identified with logical calculus. Another interpretation of a formalized language involves the adoption of rules for the interpretation of its expressions, allowing each syntactic category of signs to be compared with a semantic one, which is essential for identifying logical forms.

Formalized languages ​​can have different expressive capabilities. Thus, propositional languages ​​allow one to study the logical form only at the level of complex statements, without taking into account internal structure simple statements. Syllogistic languages ​​make it possible to capture the logical forms of attributive statements. First-order languages ​​reproduce the structure of both simple (both attributive and relational) and complex statements, but they allow quantification only by individuals. In richer languages ​​- languages ​​of higher orders - quantification is also allowed by properties, relations and functions.

The principles of constructing formalized languages ​​can also be used when defining languages ​​of non-logical, applied theories. In this case, instead of abstract non-logical symbols (parameters), the names of specific objects of the subject area of ​​the theory, signs of certain functions, properties, relationships, etc. are entered into the language alphabet.

FORM AND LANGUAGE OF INFORMATION PRESENTATION

The form of presentation of the same information may be different

Thus, information can be presented in various forms:

  • iconic written, consisting of various signs, among which it is customary to distinguish:
  • symbolic in the form of text, numbers, special characters (on
  • example, textbook text);
  • graphic(For example, geographic map);
  • tabular(for example, a table recording the progress of a physical experiment);
    • in the form of gestures or signals (for example, traffic controller signals
    • traffic);
    • oral verbal (for example, conversation).

The basis of any language is alphabet- a set of uniquely defined signs (symbols) from which a message is formed. Languages ​​are divided into natural (spoken) and formal. The alphabet of natural languages ​​depends on national traditions. Formal languages ​​are found in specialized areas human activity(mathematics, physics, chemistry, etc.).

Natural and formal languages.

In the process of development of human society, people have developed big number languages. Language examples:

  • · spoken languages(there are currently more than 2000 of them in the world);
  • · languages ​​of facial expressions and gestures;
  • · languages ​​of drawings, drawings, diagrams;
  • · languages ​​of science (mathematics, chemistry, biology, etc.);
  • · languages ​​of art (painting, music, sculpture, architecture, etc.);
  • · special languages ​​(Braille for the blind, Morse code, Esperanto, maritime semaphore, etc.);
  • · algorithmic languages ​​(flowcharts, programming languages).

Language– is a sign system used for the purposes of communication and cognition. The basis of most languages ​​is alphabet– a set of symbols from which words and phrases of a given language can be composed.

The language is characterized by:

  • · set of signs used;
  • · rules for the formation of such linguistic constructions from these signs as “words”, “phrases” and “texts” (in a broad interpretation of these concepts);
  • · a set of syntactic, semantic and pragmatic rules for using these language structures.

All languages ​​can be divided into natural and artificial.

Natural are called “ordinary”, “colloquial” languages ​​that develop spontaneously and over time. Natural language, intended primarily for everyday communication, has a number of unique features:

  • · almost all words have more than one meaning;
  • · there are often words with imprecise and unclear content;
  • · values individual words and expressions depend not only on themselves, but also on their environment (context);
  • synonyms (different sound - same meaning) and homonyms (same sound - same meaning) are common different meaning);
  • · the same objects can have several names;
  • · there are words that do not denote any objects;
  • · many conventions regarding the use of words are not stated explicitly, but are only assumed, and for each rule there are exceptions, etc.

Main functions natural language are:

  • · communicative (communication function);
  • · cognitive (cognitive function);
  • · emotional (function of personality formation);
  • · directive (function of influence).

Artificial languages ​​are created by people for specific purposes or for specific groups of people. A characteristic feature of artificial languages ​​is the unambiguous definition of their vocabulary, the rules for the formation of expressions and the rules for assigning meanings to them.

Any language – both natural and artificial – has a set of certain rules. They can be explicitly and strictly formulated (formalized), or they can allow various options their use.

Formalized (formal) language – a language characterized by precise rules constructing expressions and understanding them. It is built in accordance with clear rules, providing a consistent, accurate and compact display of the properties and relationships of the subject area being studied (modeled objects).

Unlike natural languages, formal languages ​​have clearly defined rules for semantic interpretation and syntactic transformation of the signs used, and also the fact that the meaning and meaning of the signs does not change depending on any pragmatic circumstances (for example, context).



Most formal languages ​​(created structures) are built according to the following scheme. first selected alphabet , or a set of initial symbols from which all expressions of the language will be built; then describes syntax language, that is, the rules for constructing meaningful expressions. Letters in the alphabet of a formal language can be letters from the alphabets of natural languages, brackets, special characters, etc. From letters, by certain rules can be compiled words and expressions . Meaningful expressions are obtained in a formal language only if certain rules in the language are met. rules education. For each formal language, the set of these rules must be strictly defined, and modification of any of them most often leads to the emergence of a new variety (dialect) of this language.

Formal languages ​​are widely used in science and technology. From the point of view of computer science, among formal languages ​​the most significant role play formal language of logic (logical algebra language) and programming languages .

Emergence programming languages falls on the beginning of the 50s of the XX century.

Language— a system of signs that have meaning. Language is a way of existence of consciousness and communication between man and man. First of all, you need to understand that consciousness is inextricably linked with language as a certain sign system. Sign- a material object (phenomenon, event), acting as a representative of another object and, therefore, reproducing its properties.

There are linguistic signs (part of a certain sign system) and non-linguistic signs (including copies, signs, symptoms). “Languages” can be considered as sign systems visual arts, theater, cinema, dance, music, etc. Sign systems have arisen and are developing as a material form in which consciousness and thinking are carried out.

The initial sign system is ordinary spoken, natural language. In the language they distinguish speech - language in action, in a situation of communication, primarily oral, secondly written.

Thinking (consciousness) and language are inextricably linked, but not identical. The difference between them is that thought is a reflection objective reality, while a word is a way of consolidating, expressing thoughts and at the same time a means of transmitting thoughts to other people.

Language serves as a condition for mutual understanding between people, as well as a person’s awareness of reality and himself. The means of facilitating the embodiment of thoughts in linguistic form are different kinds speech: oral, written, internal (“think to yourself”). Speech is the process of using language to communicate.

Word as a unit of language, it has two sides: external, sound (phonetic) and internal, semantic (semantic). Both of them are products of long-term socio-historical development. The unity of these sides creates a word in which the functions of sign and meaning are fused.

So, consciousness and language are one. In this unity, the determining side is consciousness, thinking. Consciousness reflects reality, and language designates and expresses it. Language is a way of existence of consciousness.

Natural (verbal, auditory)— ordinary human language. Artificial is the language of signs and symbols. The first arises spontaneously in the process of communication between members of some social group. The second is created by people for some special purpose (languages ​​of mathematics, logic, ciphers, etc.). A characteristic feature of natural languages ​​is the polysemy of words, while artificial ones are unambiguous and precise. Let's take a closer look at these languages.

Natural language represents the richest developing integral system. Its elementary unit, the “atom” of language, is the word, which serves to name objects, persons, processes, properties, etc. Since its inception, natural language has continuously changed - this was due to the interaction of cultures, scientific and technological progress, etc. Some words lose their meanings over time (“phlogiston”, “caloric”), others acquire new meanings (“satellite” as a spacecraft).


Natural language seems to live its own life. It includes many nuances and features, which makes it difficult to accurately express an idea (especially a scientific one) in words. This is not helped by the presence in natural language of many figurative expressions, archaisms, borrowed words, hyperboles, idioms, metaphors, etc. In addition, natural language is rich in exclamations and interjections, the meaning of which is difficult to convey out of context.

Constructed languages ​​- sign systems created by people for use in limited areas, where accuracy, rigor, unambiguity, conciseness and simplicity of expression are necessary and sufficient. This is especially true for scientific purposes.

There are specialized and non-specialized languages. The latter are intended mainly for international communication. The most common of them is Esperanto. Specialized artificial languages ​​include formalized symbol systems in various fields of science (mathematics, physics, chemistry, logic, linguistics, etc.), as well as a rapidly developing computer language that more and more fully models the natural one. Artificial languages ​​are a complement to natural languages ​​and exist only on their basis.

Natural language- in linguistics and philosophy of language, a language used for human communication (as opposed to formal languages ​​and other types of sign systems, also called languages ​​in semiotics) and not artificially created (as opposed to artificial languages).

The vocabulary and grammatical rules of natural language are determined by the practice of use and are not always formally recorded.

Natural language features

Natural language as a system of signs

Currently, consistency is considered the most important characteristic of a language. The semiotic essence of natural language consists in establishing a correspondence between the universe of meanings and the universe of sounds.

Based on the nature of the plane of expression In its oral form, human language belongs to the auditory sign systems, and in its written form – to the visual.

By type of genesis natural language is classified as a cultural system, thus it is contrasted with both natural and artificial sign systems. Human language as a sign system is characterized by a combination of features of both natural and artificial sign systems.

Natural language system refers to multi-level systems, because consists of qualitatively different elements - phonemes, morphemes, words, sentences, the relationships between which are complex and multifaceted.

Regarding the structural complexity of natural language, language is called the most complex of sign systems.

By structural basis also distinguish deterministic And probabilistic semiotic systems. Natural language belongs to probabilistic systems in which the order of elements is not rigid, but is probabilistic in nature.

Semiotic systems are also divided into dynamic, moving and static, stationary. Elements of dynamic systems change their position relative to each other, while the state of elements in static systems is motionless and stable. Natural language is classified as a dynamic system, although it also contains static features.

Another structural characteristic of sign systems is their completeness. A complete system can be defined as a system with signs representing all theoretically possible combinations of a certain length from the elements of a given set. Accordingly, an incomplete system can be characterized as a system with a certain degree of redundancy, in which not all of the signs are used to express signs. possible combinations given elements. Natural language is an incomplete system with a high degree of redundancy.

The differences between sign systems in their ability to change make it possible to classify them into open and closed systems. Open systems in the process of their functioning can include new signs and are characterized by higher adaptability compared to closed systems that are not capable of change. The ability to change is inherent in human language.

According to V.V. Nalimov, natural language occupies a middle position between “soft” and “hard” systems. Soft systems include ambiguously coding and ambiguously interpreted sign systems, for example, the language of music, while hard systems include the language of scientific symbols.

Main function of language - constructing judgments, the possibility of determining the meaning of active reactions, organizing concepts that represent some symmetrical forms that organize the space of relations of “communicators”: [source not specified 1041 days]

communicative:

stating(for a neutral statement of fact),

interrogative(for a fact request),

appellative(to encourage action),

expressive(to express the mood and emotions of the speaker),

contact-making(to create and maintain contact between interlocutors);

metalinguistic(for interpretation of linguistic facts);

aesthetic(for aesthetic impact);

function of indicator of belonging to a certain group of people(nations, nationalities, professions);

informational;

educational;

emotional.

Constructed languages- special languages, which, unlike natural ones, are designed purposefully. There are already more than a thousand such languages, and more and more are constantly being created.

Classification

The following types of artificial languages ​​are distinguished:

Programming languages ​​and computer languages- languages ​​for automatic processing of information using a computer.

Information languages- languages ​​used in various information processing systems.

Formalized languages ​​of science- languages ​​intended for symbolic notation scientific facts and theories of mathematics, logic, chemistry and other sciences.

Languages ​​of non-existent peoples created for fictional or entertainment purposes, for example: the Elvish language invented by J. Tolkien, the Klingon language invented by Marc Okrand for the science fiction series Star Trek (see Fictional languages), the Na'vi language created for the film Avatar.

International auxiliary languages- languages ​​created from elements of natural languages ​​and offered as an auxiliary means of interethnic communication.

The idea of ​​creating a new language of international communication originated in XVII-XVIII centuries as a result of the gradual decline in the international role of Latin. Initially, these were predominantly projects of a rational language, freed from the logical errors of living languages ​​and based on the logical classification of concepts. Later, projects based on models and materials from living languages ​​appear. The first such project was the universalglot, published in 1868 in Paris by Jean Pirro. Pirro's project, which anticipated many details of later projects, went unnoticed by the public.

Next project international language became Volapuk, created in 1880 by the German linguist I. Schleyer. It caused quite a stir in society.

The most famous artificial language was Esperanto (L. Zamenhof, 1887) - the only artificial language that became widespread and united quite a lot of supporters of an international language.

The most famous artificial languages ​​are:

basic english

Esperanto

interlingua

Latin-blue-flexione

occidental

solresol

Klingon language

Elvish languages

There are also languages ​​that were specifically developed to communicate with extraterrestrial intelligence. For example - Linkos.

By purpose of creation artificial languages ​​can be divided into the following groups:

Philosophical and logical languages- languages ​​that have a clear logical structure of word formation and syntax: Lojban, Tokipona, Ifkuil, Ilaksh.

Supporting languages- intended for practical communication: Esperanto, Interlingua, Slovio, Slovyanski.

Artistic or aesthetic languages- created for creative and aesthetic pleasure: Quenya.

Language is also created to set up an experiment, for example, to test the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis (that the language a person speaks limits consciousness, drives it into a certain framework).

By its structure Artificial language projects can be divided into the following groups:

A priori languages- based on logical or empirical classifications of concepts: loglan, lojban, rho, solresol, ifkuil, ilaksh.

A posteriori languages- languages ​​built primarily on the basis of international vocabulary: Interlingua, Occidental

Mixed languages- words and word formation are partly borrowed from non-artificial languages, partly created on the basis of artificially invented words and word-formation elements: Volapuk, Ido, Esperanto, Neo.

The number of speakers of artificial languages ​​can only be estimated approximately, due to the fact that there is no systematic record of speakers.

According to the degree of practical use artificial languages ​​are divided into projects that have become widespread: Ido, Interlingua, Esperanto. Languages ​​like national languages, are called “socialized”; among artificial ones they are united under the term planned languages. An intermediate position is occupied by artificial language projects that have a certain number of supporters, for example, Loglan (and its descendant Lojban), Slovio and others. Most artificial languages ​​have a single speaker - the author of the language (for this reason it is more correct to call them “linguistic projects” rather than languages).

Hierarchy of communication goals

Language functions

Basic functions:

Cognitive(cognitive) function consists in the accumulation of knowledge, its ordering, systematization.

Communicative the function is to ensure interaction between the sender of a verbal message and its recipient.

Private language features

Contact making (phatic)

Impacts (voluntary)

Reference- a function associated with the subject of thought with which a given linguistic expression is correlated.

Estimated

Emotive (emotionally expressive)

Rechargeable- the property of language to accumulate, accumulate people’s knowledge. Subsequently, this knowledge is perceived by descendants.

Metalinguistic

Aesthetic- The ability of language to be a means of exploration and description in terms of the language itself.

Ritual and etc.

Natural languages ​​are languages ​​that people speak, such as English, Spanish, and French languages. They were not developed by humans (although humans are trying to impose some rules on them); they developed naturally.

Formal languages ​​are languages ​​that are developed by people for specific applications. For example, a notation that mathematicians use as a formal language that is particularly good at expressing relationships between numbers and symbols. Chemists use formal language to represent chemical structure molecules. And the most important:

Programming languages ​​are formal languages ​​that have been developed for computational expressions.

Formal languages ​​typically have strict rules syntax. For example, 3+3=6 is a syntactically correct mathematical statement, but 3=+$6 is not. H2O is a syntactically correct chemical name, but 2ZZ is not.

There are two types of syntax rules: those related to lexemes and those related to structure. Lexemes are the basic elements of language, such as words, numbers and chemical elements. One of the problems with 3 = + 6 $ is that $ is not a legal lexeme in mathematics (according to at least, as far as we know). Likewise, 2Zz is not legal because there is no element with the abbreviation Zz.

The second type of syntax error relates to the structure of the statement, which is structured like a token. Statement 3 = + 6 $ is structurally incorrect because you cannot place a plus sign immediately after the equal sign. The same way, molecular formulas should have subscripts after the element name, not before.

As an exercise, create something that looks well structured English sentence with unrecognizable tokens in it. Then write another sentence with all the valid tokens, but with an invalid structure.

When you read a sentence on English language or statement in a formal language, you have to figure out what sentence structure is present (although in natural language you do this subconsciously). This process is called syntactic analysis.

For example, when you hear the phrase “The second shoe fell,” you understand that “the second shoe” is the subject and “fell” is the predicate. After you have parsed a sentence, you can find out its meaning or its semantics. Assuming you know what a "shoe" is and what it means to fall, you will understand the general implication of this sentence.

Although formal and natural languages ​​have many features in common tokens, structure, syntax and semantics, there are many differences:

ambiguity- Natural languages ​​are full of ambiguity when people communicate using context clues and other information. Formal languages ​​are designed to be almost or completely unambiguous, meaning that any statement has exactly one meaning, regardless of context.

redundancy- Natural languages ​​use a lot of redundancy to compensate for ambiguity and reduce misunderstandings. As a result, they are often verbose. Formal languages ​​are less redundant and more concise.

literalness- Natural languages ​​are full of idioms and metaphors. If I say, “The other shoe has dropped,” there are probably no shoes there and nothing to drop. Formal languages ​​mean exactly what they say.

People who grow up speaking natural languages ​​often have to adapt to formal languages. In some ways, the difference between formal and natural languages ​​is similar to the difference between poetry and prose, but to a greater extent:

Poetry

Words are used for their impression as well as their meaning, and the entire poem together creates an effect or emotional response. Ambiguity is not only common, but often intentional.

Prose

The literal meaning of a word is more important, and the structure promotes greater understanding. Prose is more amenable to analysis than poetry, but is still often ambiguous.

Programs

The meaning of a computer program is unambiguous and literal, and can be understood fully through the analysis of tokens and structure.

Here are some tips for reading programs (and other formal languages). First, remember that formal languages ​​are much denser than natural languages, so they will take longer to read. Also, structure is very important, so therefore not very good idea read from top to bottom, left to right. Instead, learn to analyze the program in your head, identifying tokens and interpreting the structure. To top it all off, details matter. Little things like misspellings and bad punctuation that you can get away with in natural languages ​​can have great importance in formal language.

First program

Traditionally, the first program written in a new language is called "Hello, World!" because all it does is display the words "Hello, World!" In Python, it looks like this:

print "Hello, World!"

This is an example of a print statement that doesn't actually print anything on paper. It displays the value on the screen. In this case, the result is the words:

Quotes in a program mark the beginning and end of a value; they do not appear as a result.

Some people judge the quality of a programming language by the simplicity of the "Hello, World!" program. Following this pattern, Python does this as much as possible.

Glossary.

Solution- the process of developing a problem, finding a solution and reflecting on the solution.

Programming language high level is a programming language similar to Python that is designed to be easy for people to read and write.

Low level language- a programming language that is designed to be natural to be executed by a computer; also called "machine language" or "assembly language".

Portability- the property of a program that can run on more than one type of computer. interpretation - executing a program in a high-level language by translating one line at a time.

Compilation- one-time translation of a program written in a high-level language into low level in preparation for subsequent implementation.

Source - a program in a high-level language before compilation. object code is the output of the compiler after it has translated the program. executable code is another name for "object code" that is ready to be executed. script - a program stored in a file (usually the one that will be interpreted).

Program- a set of instructions that defines calculations. algorithm - general process solutions to a class of problems.

Bug- error in the program. debugging is the process of finding and removing any of the three types of programming errors.

Syntax- program structure. syntax error - an error in a program that makes parsing impossible (and therefore impossible to interpret).

Runtime error- an error that does not occur until the program starts executing, but which prevents the program from continuing.

Exception- another name for a runtime error. semantic error - an error in a program that causes it to do something other than what the programmer intended.

Semantics- the meaning of the program. natural language - any of the languages ​​spoken by humans and which have evolved naturally.