NEP in short - new economic policy. Soviet Russia during the years of the New Economic Policy (1921–1928)

NEP- economic policy pursued in Soviet Russia and the USSR in the 1920s. It was adopted on March 14, 1921 by the X Congress of the RCP (b), replacing the policy of “war communism” pursued during the Civil War.

At the end of the civil war, the situation in Russia was critical. The level of production, including agricultural products, fell sharply. However, there was no longer a serious threat to Bolshevik power. In this situation, to normalize relations and social life In the country, at the 10th Congress of the Russian Communist Party, a decision was made to introduce the New Economic Policy.

The reasons for the transition to NEP from the policy of war communism were:

There is an urgent need to normalize relations between the city and the countryside.

The need for economic recovery.

The problem of money stabilization.

The peasantry's dissatisfaction with surplus appropriation, which led to an intensification of the insurrectionary movement (kulak rebellion)

The desire to restore foreign policy ties.

The NEP policy was proclaimed March 21, 1921 From that moment on, the food appropriation system was abolished and replaced by a tax in kind that was half as much.

He, at the request of the peasant, could be contributed both in money and products. However, the tax policy of the Soviet government became a serious limiting factor for the development of large peasant farms. While the poor were exempt from payments, the wealthy peasantry bore a heavy tax burden. The development of new commodity-money relations entailed the restoration of the all-Russian market, as well as, to some extent, private capital.

During the NEP period The country's banking system was formed. Direct and indirect taxes are introduced, which become the main source of government revenue due to the fact that the NEP policy in Russia was seriously hampered by inflation and instability of monetary circulation, and a monetary reform was undertaken. By the end of 1922, a stable monetary unit had appeared - the chervonets, which was backed by gold or other valuables.

As a result, NEP by 1928. Despite frequent crises provoked by the incompetence of new leaders, it led to noticeable economic growth and a certain improvement in the situation in the country. National income has increased, and the financial situation of citizens has become more stable. Despite the fact that the NEP turned out to be, for the most part, successful, after 1925 attempts to curtail it began. The reason for the collapse of the NEP was the gradual strengthening of contradictions between economics and politics. Officially, the NEP was curtailed on October 11, 1931, but in fact already in October 1928. The implementation of the first five-year plan began, as well as barely collectivization and accelerated industrialization of production.

Prerequisites for the creation of the USSR

The country suffered greatly from the consequences of the Civil War. The creation of the USSR would make it possible to accumulate and direct available resources to restore the state. This, in turn, would contribute to the development of the economy, national and cultural relations. In addition, the creation of the USSR would make it possible to begin to get rid of shortcomings in the development of a number of republics. It must be taken into account that the territory of the state was surrounded by different countries, often hostile. This fact had an important influence on the unification of the republics.

History of the creation of the USSR

To concentrate resources and strengthen the centralization of the control mechanism during the Civil War, in June 1919, Ukraine, the RSFSR and Belarus united into a union. Thus, the opportunity arose to unite all armed forces and introduce centralized command. At the same time, delegates were represented from each republic to government bodies.

At the same time, the agreement on the unification of these republics into a union provided for the resubordination of individual republican branches of transport, finance and industry to the corresponding people's commissariats. The new state formation went down in history under the name “contractual federation.” A special feature of this association was that Russian governing bodies began to function as the only representatives of the supreme state power. And the republican communist parties were included in the RCP (b) as just regional party organizations. Soon, disagreements began between the Moscow control center and the republics. As a result of the unification, the latter were deprived of the opportunity to make decisions independently. At the same time, the independence of the republics in the management sector was officially declared. The prerequisites for the emergence and development of the conflict were the uncertain boundaries of central and republican powers. In addition, sabotage was often provoked by decisions in the economic sphere adopted by the central authorities and not understood by the republican authorities. As a result, in order to radically change the situation, a commission was created, which included representatives of the republics. Kuibyshev became its chairman. Stalin was entrusted with developing a project for the autonomization of the republics. By the middle of 22, six republics were formed: Russian, Georgian, Armenian, Azerbaijan, Belarusian, Ukrainian. In May 1922, a commission was formed “to clarify the relationship between Ukraine and Russia.” Subsequently, this issue was considered in relation to other republics. In 1922, on December 30, the First Congress of Soviets of the USSR was opened. The creation of the USSR, according to a number of researchers, had a beneficial effect on the development of various spheres of life (health care, culture, education and others). The new state united about 185 nationalities and nationalities. The process of unification into a multinational state did not contradict the interests of the peoples inhabiting the territory of the country. Consolidation made it possible for the young power to occupy one of the leading places in the global geopolitical space.

NEP (New Economic Policy) was carried out by the Soviet government from 1921 to 1928. This was an attempt to bring the country out of the crisis and give impetus to the development of the economy and agriculture. But the results of the NEP turned out to be terrible, and ultimately Stalin had to hastily interrupt this process to create industrialization, since the NEP policy almost completely killed heavy industry.

Reasons for introducing the NEP

With the beginning of the winter of 1920, the RSFSR plunged into a terrible crisis. It was largely due to the fact that in 1921-1922 there was a famine in the country. The Volga region suffered mainly (we all understand the notorious phrase “The Starving Volga Region”). Added to this was the economic crisis, as well as popular uprisings against the Soviet regime. No matter how many textbooks tell us that people greeted the power of the Soviets with applause, this was not so. For example, uprisings took place in Siberia, on the Don, in the Kuban, and the largest one was in Tambov. It went down in history under the name Antonov uprising or “Antonovschina.” In the spring of 21, about 200 thousand people were involved in the uprising. Considering that the Red Army at that moment was extremely weak, then this was a very serious threat to the regime. Then the Kronstadt rebellion was born. At the cost of effort, all these revolutionary elements were suppressed, but it became obvious that the approach to government management needed to be changed. And the conclusions were made correctly. Lenin formulated them this way:

• driving force socialism - the proletariat, which means peasants. Therefore, the Soviet government must learn to get along with them.
• it is necessary to create a unified party system in the country and destroy any dissent.

This is precisely the essence of the NEP - “Economic liberalization under strict political control.”

In general, all the reasons for the introduction of the NEP can be divided into ECONOMIC (the country needed an impetus for economic development), SOCIAL (social division was still extremely acute) and POLITICAL (the new economic policy became a means of managing power).

Beginning of the NEP

The main stages of the introduction of the NEP in the USSR:

1. Decision of the 10th Congress of the Bolshevik Party of 1921.
2. Replacing the appropriation tax (in fact, this was the introduction of the NEP). Decree of March 21, 1921.
3. Allowing free exchange of agricultural products. Decree March 28, 1921.
4. Creation of cooperatives, which were destroyed in 1917. Decree of April 7, 1921.
5. Transfer of some industry from state hands to private hands. Decree May 17, 1921.
6. Creating conditions for the development of private trade. Decree May 24, 1921.
7. Resolution to TEMPORARILY provide the opportunity for private owners to lease state-owned enterprises. Decree July 5, 1921.
8. Permission for private capital to create any enterprise (including industrial) with a staff of up to 20 people. If the enterprise is mechanized - no more than 10. Decree of July 7, 1921.
9. Adoption of a “liberal” Land Code. He allowed not only the rental of land, but also hired labor on it. Decree of October 1922.

The ideological foundation of the NEP was laid at the 10th Congress of the RCP (b), which met in 1921 (if you remember, its participants went straight from this congress of delegates to suppress the Kronstadt rebellion), adopted the NEP and introduced a ban on “dissent” in the RCP (b). The fact is that before 1921 there were different factions in the RCP (b). This was allowed. According to logic, and this logic is absolutely correct, if economic relief is introduced, then within the party there must be a monolith. Therefore, there are no factions or divisions.

Justification of the NEP from the point of view of Soviet ideology

The ideological concept of the NEP was first given by V.I. Lenin. This happened at a speech at the tenth and eleventh congresses of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks, which took place in 1921 and 1922, respectively. Also, the rationale for the New Economic Policy was voiced at the third and fourth congresses of the Comintern, which also took place in 1921 and 1922. In addition, Nikolai Ivanovich Bukharin played a major role in formulating the tasks of the NEP. It is important to remember that for a long time Bukharin and Lenin acted in opposition to each other on NEP issues. Lenin proceeded from the fact that the time had come to ease the pressure on the peasants and “make peace” with them. But Lenin was going to get along with the peasants not forever, but for 5-10 years. Therefore, the majority of members of the Bolshevik Party were sure that the NEP, as a forced measure, was being introduced for just one grain procurement company, as a deception for the peasantry. But Lenin especially emphasized that the NEP course is taken for a longer period. And then Lenin said a phrase that showed that the Bolsheviks were keeping their word - “but we will return to terror, including economic terror.” If we remember the events of 1929, then this is exactly what the Bolsheviks did. The name of this terror is Collectivization.

The New Economic Policy was designed for 5, maximum 10 years. And it certainly fulfilled its task, although at some point it threatened the existence of the Soviet Union.

Briefly, the NEP, according to Lenin, is a bond between the peasantry and the proletariat. This is precisely what formed the basis of the events of those days - if you are against the bond between the peasantry and the proletariat, then you are an opponent of the workers’ power, the Soviets and the USSR. The problems of this bond became a problem for the survival of the Bolshevik regime, because the regime simply did not have the army or equipment to crush the peasant revolts if they began en masse and in an organized manner. That is, some historians say that the NEP is the Brest peace of the Bolsheviks with their own people. That is, what kind of Bolsheviks are the International Socialists who wanted a world revolution. Let me remind you that it was this idea that Trotsky promoted. First, Lenin, who was not a very great theorist, (he was a good practitioner), he defined the NEP as state capitalism. And immediately for this he received a full portion of criticism from Bukharin and Trotsky. And after this, Lenin began to interpret the NEP as a mixture of Socialist and capitalist forms. I repeat - Lenin was not a theorist, but a practitioner. He lived by the principle - it is important for us to take power, but what it will be called is unimportant.

Lenin, in fact, accepted Bukharin’s version of the NEP with its wording and other attributes..

The NEP is a socialist dictatorship based on socialist production relations and regulating the broad petty-bourgeois organization of the economy.

Lenin

According to the logic of this definition, the main task facing the leadership of the USSR was the destruction of the petty-bourgeois economy. Let me remind you that the Bolsheviks called peasant farming petty-bourgeois. You need to understand that by 1922 the building of socialism had reached a dead end and Lenin realized that this movement could only be continued through the NEP. It is clear that this is not the main path, and it contradicted Marxism, but as a workaround it was quite suitable. And Lenin constantly emphasized that new policy- a temporary phenomenon.

General characteristics of NEP

The totality of the NEP:

• rejection of labor mobilization and an equal wage system for all.
• transfer (partial, of course) of industry into private hands from state ones (denationalization).
• creation of new economic associations - trusts and syndicates. Widespread introduction of self-financing
• the formation of enterprises in the country at the expense of capitalism and the bourgeoisie, including the Western one.

Looking ahead, I will say that the NEP led to the fact that many idealistic Bolsheviks shot themselves in the forehead. They believed that capitalism was being restored, and they shed blood in vain during the Civil War. But the non-idealistic Bolsheviks made great use of the NEP, because during the NEP it was easy to launder what was stolen during the Civil War. Because, as we will see, NEP is a triangle: it is the head of a separate link of the party’s Central Committee, the head of a syndicator or trust, and also NEPman as a “huckster,” in modern language, through whom this whole process takes place. In general, this was a corruption scheme from the very beginning, but the NEP was a forced measure - the Bolsheviks would not have retained power without it.

NEP in trade and finance

• Development of the credit system. In 1921, a state bank was created.
• Reforming the financial and monetary system of the USSR. This was achieved through the reform of 1922 (monetary) and the replacement of the money of 1922-1924.
• The emphasis is on private (retail) trade and the development of various markets, including the All-Russian one.

If we try to briefly characterize the NEP, then this structure was extremely unreliable. It took ugly forms of merging the personal interests of the country's leadership and everyone who was involved in the "Triangle". Each of them played their role. The menial work was done by the NEP man speculator. And this was especially emphasized in Soviet textbooks, saying that it was all private traders who ruined the NEP, and we fought against them as best we could. But in fact, the NEP led to colossal corruption of the party. This was one of the reasons for the abolition of the NEP, because if it had been maintained further, the party would simply have completely disintegrated.

Beginning in 1921, the Soviet leadership set a course towards weakening Centralization. In addition, much attention was paid to the element of reforming economic systems in the country. Labor mobilizations were replaced by labor exchanges (unemployment was high). Equalization was abolished, the card system was abolished (but for some, the card system was a salvation). It is logical that the results of the NEP almost immediately affected positive side in the field of trade. Naturally in retail trade. Already at the end of 1921, the Nepmen controlled 75% of trade turnover in retail trade and 18% in wholesale trade. NEPism has become a profitable form of money laundering, especially for those who looted a lot during the civil war. Their loot lay idle, and now it could be sold through the NEPmen. And many people laundered their money this way.

NEP in agriculture

• Adoption of the Land Code. (22nd year). Transformation of the tax in kind into a single agricultural tax since 1923 (since 1926, entirely in cash).
• Agricultural cooperation cooperation.
• Equal (fair) exchange between agriculture and industry. But this was not achieved, as a result of which the so-called “price scissors” appeared.

At the bottom of society, the party leadership's turn to the NEP did not find much support. Many members of the Bolshevik Party were sure that this was a mistake and a transition from socialism to capitalism. Someone simply sabotaged the decision of the NEP, and those who were especially ideological even committed suicide. In October 1922, the New Economic Policy affected agriculture - the Bolsheviks began implementing the Land Code with new amendments. Its difference was that it legalized wage labor in the countryside (it would seem that the Soviet government was fighting precisely against this, but it did the same thing itself). The next stage occurred in 1923. This year, something happened that many had been waiting for and demanding for so long - the tax in kind was replaced by an agricultural tax. In 1926, this tax began to be collected entirely in cash.

In general, the NEP was not an absolute triumph of economic methods, as it was sometimes written in Soviet textbooks. It was only outwardly a triumph of economic methods. In fact, there was a lot of other things there. And I don’t just mean the so-called excesses of local authorities. The fact is that a significant part of the peasant product was alienated in the form of taxes, and taxation was excessive. Another thing is that the peasant got the opportunity to breathe freely, and this solved some problems. And here the absolutely unfair exchange between agriculture and industry, the formation of the so-called “price scissors,” came to the fore. The regime increased prices for industrial products and decreased prices for agricultural products. As a result, in 1923-1924 the peasants worked for practically nothing! The laws were such that the peasants were forced to sell approximately 70% of everything that the village produced for next to nothing. 30% of the product they produced was taken by the state at market value, and 70% at a reduced price. Then this figure decreased, and it became approximately 50/50. But in any case, this is a lot. 50% of products are priced below the market price.

As a result, the worst happened - the market ceased to perform its direct functions as a means of buying and selling goods. Now it has turned into an effective time of exploitation of the peasants. Only half of the peasant goods were purchased with money, and the other half was collected in the form of tribute (this is the most accurate definition of what happened in those years). The NEP can be characterized as follows: corruption, a swollen apparatus, massive theft of state property. The result was a situation where peasant production was used irrationally, and often the peasants themselves were not interested in high yields. This was a logical consequence of what was happening, because the NEP was initially an ugly design.

NEP in industry

The main features that characterize the New Economic Policy from the point of view of industry are the almost complete lack of development of this industry and the huge level of unemployment among ordinary people.

The NEP was initially supposed to establish interaction between city and village, between workers and peasants. But it was not possible to do this. The reason is that industry was almost completely destroyed as a result of the Civil War, and it was not able to offer anything significant to the peasantry. The peasantry did not sell their grain, because why sell if you can’t buy anything with money anyway. They simply stored the grain and did not buy anything. Therefore, there was no incentive for the development of industry. It turned out to be such a “vicious circle”. And in 1927-1928, everyone already understood that the NEP had outlived its usefulness, that it did not provide an incentive for the development of industry, but, on the contrary, destroyed it even more.

At the same time, it became clear that sooner or later a new war was coming in Europe. Here is what Stalin said about this in 1931:

If in the next 10 years we do not cover the path that the West has covered in 100 years, we will be destroyed and crushed.

Stalin

To put it in simple words, in 10 years it was necessary to raise industry from the ruins and put it on par with the most developed countries. The NEP did not allow this to be done, because it was focused on light industry, and for Russia to be a raw material appendage of the West. That is, in this regard, the implementation of the NEP was a ballast that slowly but surely dragged Russia to the bottom, and if this course had been maintained for another 5 years, it is unknown how World War 2 would have ended.

The slow pace of industrial growth in the 1920s caused a sharp rise in unemployment. If in 1923-1924 there were 1 million unemployed in the city, then in 1927-1928 there were already 2 million unemployed. The logical consequence of this phenomenon is a huge increase in crime and discontent in cities. For those who worked, of course, the situation was normal. But overall the situation of the working class was very difficult.

Development of the USSR economy during the NEP period

• Economic booms alternated with crises. Everyone knows the crises of 1923, 1925 and 1928, which also led to famine in the country.
• Lack of a unified system for the development of the country's economy. The NEP crippled the economy. It did not provide an opportunity for the development of industry, but agriculture could not develop under such conditions. These 2 spheres slowed each other down, although the opposite was planned.
• The grain procurement crisis of 1927-28 28 and, as a result, the course to curtail the NEP.

The most important part of the NEP, by the way, one of the few positive features of this policy, is “lifting up the financial system from its knees.” Let’s not forget that the Civil War has just ended, which almost completely destroyed the Russian financial system. Prices in 1921 compared to 1913 increased 200 thousand times. Just think about this number. Over 8 years, 200 thousand times... Naturally, it was necessary to introduce other money. Reform was needed. The reform was carried out by People's Commissar of Finance Sokolnikov, who was assisted by a group of old specialists. In October 1921, the State Bank began its work. As a result of his work, in the period from 1922 to 1924, depreciated Soviet money was replaced by Chervontsi

The chervonets was backed by gold, the content of which corresponded to the pre-revolutionary ten-ruble coin, and cost 6 American dollars. Chervonets was backed by both our gold and foreign currency.

Historical reference

Sovznak were withdrawn and exchanged at the rate of 1 new ruble 50,000 old signs. This money was called “Sovznaki”. During the NEP, cooperation actively developed and economic liberalization was accompanied by the strengthening of communist power. The repressive apparatus also strengthened. And how did this happen? For example, on June 6, 22, GlavLit was created. This is censorship and establishing control over censorship. A year later, GlavRepedKom emerged, which was in charge of the theater’s repertoire. In 1922, by decision of this body, more than 100 people, active cultural figures, were expelled from the USSR. Others were less fortunate and were sent to Siberia. The teaching of bourgeois disciplines was banned in schools: philosophy, logic, history. In 1936 everything was restored. Also, the Bolsheviks and the church did not ignore them. In October 1922, the Bolsheviks confiscated jewelry from the church, supposedly to fight hunger. In June 1923, Patriarch Tikhon recognized the legitimacy of Soviet power, and in 1925 he was arrested and died. A new patriarch was no longer elected. The patriarchate was then restored by Stalin in 1943.

On February 6, 1922, the Cheka was transformed into the state political department of the GPU. From emergency ones, these bodies turned into state, regular ones.

The NEP culminated in 1925. Bukharin addressed an appeal to the peasantry (primarily to the wealthy peasants).

Get rich, accumulate, develop your farm.

Bukharin

At the 14th party conference, Bukharin's plan was adopted. He was actively supported by Stalin, and criticized by Trotsky, Zinoviev and Kamenev. Economic development during the NEP period was uneven: first crisis, sometimes recovery. And this was due to the fact that the necessary balance between the development of agriculture and the development of industry was not found. The grain procurement crisis of 1925 was the first sound of the bell on the NEP. It became clear that the NEP would soon end, but due to inertia it continued for several more years.

Cancellation of NEP - reasons for cancellation

• July and November plenum of the Central Committee of 1928. Plenum of the Central Committee of the Party and the Central Control Commission(to which one could complain about the Central Committee) April 1929.
• reasons for the abolition of the NEP (economic, social, political).
• was the NEP an alternative to real communism.

In 1926, the 15th party conference of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) met. It condemned the Trotskyist-Zinovievist opposition. Let me remind you that this opposition actually called for a war with the peasantry - to take away from them what the authorities need and what the peasants are hiding. Stalin sharply criticized this idea, and also directly voiced the position that the current policy had outlived its usefulness, and the country needed a new approach to development, an approach that would allow the restoration of industry, without which the USSR could not exist.

Since 1926, a tendency towards the abolition of the NEP gradually begins to emerge. In 1926-27, grain reserves for the first time exceeded pre-war levels and amounted to 160 million tons. But the peasants still did not sell bread, and industry was suffocating from overexertion. The left opposition (its ideological leader was Trotsky) proposed confiscating 150 million poods of grain from wealthy peasants, who made up 10% of the population, but the leadership of the CPSU (b) did not agree to this, because this would mean a concession to the left opposition.

Throughout 1927, the Stalinist leadership conducted maneuvers to completely eliminate the left opposition, because without this it was impossible to resolve the peasant question. Any attempt to put pressure on the peasants would mean that the party has taken the path that the “Left Wing” is talking about. At the 15th Congress, Zinoviev, Trotsky and other left oppositionists were expelled from the Central Committee. However, after they repented (this was called in party language “disarming before the party”) they were returned, because the Stalinist center needed them for the future fight against the Bucharest team.

The struggle for the abolition of the NEP unfolded as a struggle for industrialization. This was logical, because industrialization was task number 1 for the self-preservation of the Soviet state. Therefore, the results of the NEP can be briefly summarized as follows: the ugly economic system created many problems that could only be solved thanks to industrialization.

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The essence is a partial restoration of the market economy while maintaining command leverage. The strategic goal is to build socialism.

1. Replacement of the surplus appropriation system with a tax in kind (03/21/1921 - decree), 5% of the harvest, announced on the eve of sowing. There are 13 taxes in total (meat, oil, wool, leather, etc.).

Increased taxation of wealthy peasants.

2. Freedom of trade (09.1921).

3. Land Code (10.1922) – the right to leave the community, land lease, hired labor.

4. Development of cooperation, primarily in agriculture. 04/07/1921 - decree on cooperation, cooperative production in agriculture (efficiency is twice as high) - for marketing products, purchasing equipment, obtaining loans, cultivating land.

Transfer of small and medium-sized industry to private ownership. Enterprises began to transfer to self-financing, cat. provided the opportunity for self-sufficiency, self-financing, self-government. Material incentives for workers. The decree on the nationalization of all small handicraft industries was canceled (7/7/1921). The enterprises were returned to the old owners - the old bourgeoisie, the new bourgeoisie - the Nepmen.

The organization of enterprises with the number of workers no more than 20 is allowed. Later - larger ones.

14 Question. Transition to NEP. Legal basis of NEP. The most important economic reforms.

The state retained control over large factories and factories. Plants and factories were transferred to self-financing.

6. Attracting foreign capital. Some industries are leased to foreigners - concessions (trade, mining, manufacturing).

7. Abolition of universal labor service (1921). It gave me the opportunity to do business, but there were unemployed people.

Financial reform, head. Sokolnikov People's Commissar of Finance, reconstruction of the banking system (1921-1924), sharp reduction in the issue of paper money, denominations (1922-1923), 1922 - introduction of gold chervonets into circulation.

9. The equalization system of wages and the card system have been eliminated.

10. Money emission as the main source of state income has been replaced by a system of direct and indirect taxes.

11. Transition to planning the entire national economy. Planned market economy.

The introduction of the NEP made it possible to restore the country's national economy (especially agriculture).

But there was no single NEP plan, the transformation was inconsistent. Crises of sales of industrial goods and grain procurements. Industrial enterprises set high prices arbitrarily, without taking into account the solvency of the population. Peasants stopped buying industrial goods.

(1923-1924) State intervention. The peasants did not want to trade with the state at artificially low prices. Free trade in grain was prohibited.

The standard of living of workers and peasants remained still low. Unemployment was growing in the country. From the very beginning, the NEP was a temporary concession that could lead the country out of the economic and political crisis.

At the end of the 1920s, the NEP was curtailed, although formally until 1936.

NEP crises 1923,1925,1927

Reasons for the collapse of NEP:

1.Economic crises, low rates of economic development.

2. Lack of a clear prospect for the country’s development, the complexity of economic and socio-political problems.

3. The growing popularity of the ideas of the “political NEP”, the threat of the loss of the VKP9b) monopoly on power.

4.The continuing danger of military aggression.

5. Disbelief in the NEP by a significant part of the communists.

Threat of split of the CPSU(b).

6. Unemployment, wealth stratification of the population.

Date of publication: 2015-02-18; Read: 211 | Page copyright infringement

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“Seeing Moscow again, I was amazed: after all, I went abroad in the last weeks of war communism. Everything looked different now. The cards disappeared, people were no longer attached.

The staff of various institutions was greatly reduced, and no one drew up grandiose projects... Old workers and engineers had difficulty restoring production. Products have appeared. Peasants began to bring livestock to markets. Muscovites have eaten their fill and become happier. I remember how, upon arriving in Moscow, I froze in front of a grocery store.

The main changes in the agricultural policy of the Soviet government that occurred after the transition to the NEP

What was not there! The most convincing sign was: “Estomak” (stomach). The belly was not only rehabilitated, but exalted. In a cafe on the corner of Petrovka and Stoleshnikov, the inscription made me laugh: “Children visit us to eat the cream.” I didn’t find any children, but there were a lot of visitors, and they seemed to be getting fat before our eyes. Many restaurants opened: here is “Prague”, there is “Hermitage”, then “Lisbon”, “Bar”. Beer houses were noisy on every corner - with a foxtrot, with a Russian choir, with gypsies, with balalaikas, and just with scuffles.

There were reckless drivers standing near the restaurants, waiting for the revelers, and, as in the distant times of my childhood, they said: “Your Excellency, I’ll give you a ride...” Here you could also see beggars and street children; they moaned pitifully: “A pretty penny.” There were no kopecks: there were millions (“lemons”) and brand new chervonets. In the casino, several million were lost overnight: the profits of brokers, speculators or ordinary thieves" (I.

Ehrenburg "People, years, life")

Question 63. New Economic Policy (NEP) 1921 - 1929

1. Periodization of the country’s economic development in 1921 - 1941.

The crisis of the economic policy of “war communism” in 1920-1921.

3. GOELRO plan

4. The beginning of the NEP policy. The first steps of the Soviet government to normalize economic life

5. Soviet trusts, their features. Private capitalist methods in economics

Currency reforms. Chervonets

7. NEP crisis at the end of the 1920s. His reasons

8. Refusal of NEP, transition to industrialization and collectivization

1. In 1921 - 1941

The economy of the RSFSR and the USSR went through two stages of development:

✓ 1921 - 1929 - the NEP period, during which the state temporarily moved away from total administrative-command methods and moved towards partial denationalization of the economy and the admission of small and medium-sized private capitalist activities;

✓ 1929 - 1941 - a period of return to full nationalization of the economy, collectivization and industrialization, and the transition to a planned economy.

A significant change in the country's economic policy in 1921 was caused by the fact that:

✓ the policy of “war communism”, which justified itself at the height of the civil war (1918 - 1920), became ineffective during the country’s transition to peaceful life;

✓ the “militarized” economy did not provide the state with everything necessary, forced unpaid labor was ineffective;

✓ agriculture was in an extremely neglected state; there was an economic and spiritual break between the city and the countryside, between the peasants and the Bolsheviks;

✓ anti-Bolshevik protests by workers and peasants began across the country (the largest: “Antonovschina” - a peasant war against the Bolsheviks in the Tambov province led by Antonov; the Kronstadt rebellion);

✓ the slogans “For councils without communists!”, “All power to the councils, not parties!” became popular in society; “Down with the dictatorship of the proletariat!”

With the continued preservation of “war communism”, labor conscription, non-monetary exchange and distribution of goods by the state, the Bolsheviks risked completely losing the trust of the majority of the masses - workers, peasants and soldiers who supported them during the Civil War.

At the end of 1920 - beginning of 1921.

There is a significant change in the economic policy of the Bolsheviks:

✓ at the end of December 1920, the GOELRO plan was adopted at the VIII Congress of Soviets;

✓ in March 1921, at the X Congress of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks, a decision was made to end the policy of “war communism” and begin a new economic policy (NEP);

✓ both decisions, especially on the NEP, were made by the Bolsheviks after fierce discussions, with the active influence of V.I.

3. GOELRO Plan - The State Plan for the Electrification of Russia envisaged carrying out work to electrify the country within 10 years. This plan provided for the construction of power plants and power lines throughout the country; the spread of electrical engineering both in production and in everyday life.

According to V.I. Lenin, electrification was supposed to be the first step to overcome the economic backwardness of Russia. The importance of this task was emphasized by V.I. Lenin’s phrase: “Communism is Soviet power plus electrification of the entire country.” After the adoption of the GOELRO plan, electrification became one of the main directions of the economic policy of the Soviet government.

By the beginning of the 1930s.

In the USSR as a whole, a system of electrical networks was created, the use of electricity was widespread in industry and everyday life, and in 1932 the first large hydroelectric power station, the Dnieper Hydroelectric Power Station, was launched on the Dnieper.

Subsequently, the construction of hydroelectric power stations began throughout the country.

4. The first steps of the NEP were:

✓ replacement of surplus appropriation in the countryside with tax in kind;

✓ abolition of labor service - labor ceased to be a duty (like military service) and became free;

✓ gradual abandonment of distribution and introduction of monetary circulation;

✓ partial denationalization of the economy.

When the Bolsheviks carried out the NEP, exclusively command-administrative methods began to be replaced:

✓ state-capitalist methods in large industry;

✓ using private capitalist methods in small and medium-sized production and the service sector.

In the early 1920s. Trusts were created throughout the country that united many enterprises, sometimes industries, and managed them. The trusts tried to operate as capitalist enterprises (they independently organized production and sales of products based on economic interests; they were self-financing), but at the same time they were owned by the Soviet state, and not by individual capitalists.

Control and evaluation tools for History

Because of this, this stage of the NEP was called state capitalism (as opposed to “war communism”, its management-distribution and private capitalism of the USA and other countries).

The largest trusts of Soviet state capitalism were:

✓ “Donugol”;

✓ Khimugol;

✓ Yugostal;

✓ State Trust machine-building plants"("GOMZA");

✓ Severles;

✓ “Sakharotrest”.

In small and medium-sized production and the service sector, the state agreed to allow private capitalist methods.

The most common areas of application of private capital:

✓ agriculture;

✓ small trade;

✓ handicrafts;

✓ service sector.

Private shops, shops, restaurants, workshops, and private farms in rural areas are being created throughout the country.

The most common form of small-scale private farming was cooperation - the association of several individuals for the purpose of carrying out economic or other activities.

Production, consumer, trade and other types of cooperatives are being created throughout Russia.

6. During the NEP period, reforms were also carried out in the macroeconomic sphere:

✓ the banking system has been revived;

✓ in 1922 - 1924 several monetary reforms were carried out, in particular, two denominations (reducing the denomination of money, “reducing zeros”) and reducing the money supply;

Along with the devalued Soviet money in circulation (“Sovznaki”), another currency was introduced in parallel - the chervonets, a monetary unit equal to 10 pre-revolutionary “tsarist” rubles and backed by gold;

✓ due to the fact that the chervonets (unlike other money) was backed by gold, it quickly gained popularity in Russia and became the international convertible currency of Russia;

✓ throughout the country, the replacement of natural commodity exchange with monetary exchange gradually began;

✓ cash payments and payment of wages began.

If in 1921 workers received 95-100% of their earnings in the form of rations or other goods, then in 1925 80-90% of wages were paid in cash.

The NEP policy led to some economic recovery:

✓ the bulk of the population no longer experienced hunger, although the standard of living continued to remain very low;

✓ the market has become saturated with basic necessities that were in short supply during the civil war (bread, clothing, salt, matches, soap, etc.);

✓ the overall economic situation began to improve (an increase in production, while production was at the level of 50 - 70% of the pre-war level);

✓ development of domestic trade, banking activities;

✓ tension between city and countryside decreased - peasants began to produce products and earn money; some peasants became wealthy rural entrepreneurs; Peasant revolts ceased throughout the country, since their social basis (surplus appropriation and complete poverty) was eliminated.

Thus, the NEP helped to exit the regime of “war communism”, transition to peaceful life, and satisfied the basic needs of the population.

At the same time, the NEP did not solve the main strategic problems - Russia’s lag behind the developed capitalist states continued, Russia, 10 years after the revolution, remained an economically weak agrarian state.

In 1926 - 1929

The NEP crisis began, which was expressed in:

✓ the collapse of the chervonets - by 1926, the bulk of the country's enterprises and citizens began to strive to make payments in chervonets, while the state could not provide gold for the growing mass of money, as a result of which the chervonets began to depreciate in value, and soon the state stopped providing it with gold; the chervonets, like the rest of the USSR currency ("Sovznaki"), ceased to be convertible - this was a strong blow to both internal economic development and the international prestige of the USSR;

✓ sales crisis - most of the population did not have small enterprises sufficient quantity convertible money to buy goods, as a result, entire industries could not sell their goods.

The causes of the NEP crisis were predetermined by its very half-hearted nature - it was impossible to build a hybrid of capitalism and socialism without the main means - capital.

Capital in Soviet Russia in the 1920s. there was clearly not enough, there were no conditions for its free circulation (free market), Russia was completely cut off from the world economy and foreign investment, which also contributed to financial starvation.

In addition, the NEP did not solve the problem of accelerating industrial development, contributed to the revival of bourgeois relations in the countryside, and, in the long term, undermined the power of the Bolsheviks.

Due to these circumstances, by the end of the 1920s. NEP had exhausted itself and was doomed.

8. In 1928 - 1929 The Bolshevik leadership abandoned the NEP. The economy was again nationalized.

The country moved to a planned economy. Industrialization and collectivization began.

USSR during the NEP period (1921-1929)

Reasons for introducing the New Economic Policy (NEP):

1) the severe economic crisis in Russia after the end of the civil war and foreign intervention;

2) the crisis of Soviet Power caused by the continuation of the policy of “war communism” (manifested in mass peasant uprisings in the Volga region, in the Tambov region (“Antonovschina”) and Western Siberia, workers’ protests in Petrograd and other cities, a sailors’ uprising in Kronstadt in March 1921) ;

3) the presence of a subjective factor - the flexibility of Lenin’s thinking in connection with the changed internal political situation.

The strategic policy of V.I. Lenin in the construction of socialism in the conditions of a capitalist encirclement (the impossibility of a world revolution in the coming years and the development of Marxist theory in the USSR).

In March 1921

at the X Congress of the RCP(b) were adopted two important decisions: on replacing surplus appropriation with a tax in kind and on party unity. These two resolutions reflected the internal contradictions new economic policy, the transition to which was indicated by the decisions of the congress.

NEP is an anti-crisis program, the essence of which was to recreate a multi-structured economy while maintaining the “commanding heights” in the hands of the Bolshevik government.

NEP goals:

-political: take off social tension, strengthen social base Soviet power in the form of a union of workers and peasants;

—economic: prevent devastation, overcome the crisis and restore the economy;

Social: without waiting for the world revolution, to ensure favorable conditions to build a socialist society;

- foreign policy: overcome international isolation and restore political and economic relations with other states.

Thus, tactical goal NEP was the way out of the crisis by strengthening the construction of socialism.

The NEP included a set of economic and socio-political measures that meant a “retreat” from the principles of “war communism” and assumed:

- replacement of surplus appropriation with a tax (until 1925

in kind); which was half as much and was announced in advance, which means it was beneficial to the peasants. Since 1925, it began to be collected in money and amounted to 5-10% of the harvest. Products remaining on the farm after paying the tax in kind were allowed to be sold on the market;

— permission to private trade;

— attracting foreign capital to industrial development;

- leasing by the state of many small enterprises and retaining large and medium-sized industrial enterprises;

— land lease under state control;

- attracting foreign capital to the development of industry (some enterprises were concessioned to foreign capitalists);

— transfer of industry to full self-financing and self-sufficiency.

Instead of central boards - state structures - trusts were created that were responsible for the results of their activities with their property;

— hiring labor;

— abolition of the card system and equal distribution;

— payment for all services;

- replacement of natural wages with cash wages, established depending on the quantity and quality of labor;

- abolition of universal labor conscription, maintenance of labor exchanges.

The NEP was a major achievement in the theory and practice of creating a new society, confirming the natural historical nature and continuity of the stages of development of human civilization as a whole.

The departure from the dogmatized understanding of Marxism made it possible to discover the laws governing the construction of a new society in a peasant country and to bring together the interests of the working class and the peasantry.

The new economic policy ensured the stabilization and restoration of the national economy, and the financial situation of people improved.

At the same time, this restoration meant reaching the pre-war level, the fixed assets of Russian industry were worn out, the equipment was outdated, the country became even more agrarian than it was, its industrial development directly depended on the state of agriculture.

As recovery progressed, old economic problems returned pre-revolutionary Russia, its structural imbalances and contradictions. During the NEP period, many processes generated by the market also developed - increased unemployment, reduced spending on social needs and education, corruption, and increased crime.

Reasons for canceling the NEP:

1) foreign policy crisis of 1927-28.

- the severance of relations with England, the threat of war from the capitalist powers was perceived as real, which is why the time frame for industrialization was adjusted to an ultra-short one, as a result, the NEP could no longer provide sources of funds for industrialization at an ultra-accelerated, accelerated pace.

2) contradictions and crises of the NEP itself (the sales crisis of 1923 and 1924, the grain procurement crises of 1925/26 and 1928/29.

-the last of which led to the failure of the industrialization plan).

3) the inconsistency of the NEP with the ideology of the ruling party.

4) 1929 - the final abolition of the NEP, the transition to a super-centralized, command-administrative economy.

Education of the USSR.

Basic plans of the merger:

People's Commissar for Nationalities I.V. Stalin proposed an autonomization plan. Its essence was as follows: the Soviet republics of Ukraine, Belarus, the Transcaucasian Federation as part of Armenia, Georgia and Azerbaijan were to become part of the RSFSR with autonomous rights.

Stalin's plan was criticized by Lenin as anti-democratic and a return to the imperial past.

Lenin proposed a plan for creating a federation. The Soviet republics created a federation on the principles of equality and preservation of sovereign rights, up to the right of secession. This project was implemented.

December 27, 1922 - signing of the Union Treaty (RSFSR, Ukrainian SSR, BSSR, ZSFSR) on the formation of the USSR.

Issues of defense, foreign policy, state security, border protection, and foreign trade came under the jurisdiction of the Union.

Transport, budget, communications and monetary circulation.

New Economic Policy

At the same time, the right to freely leave the USSR was declared.

In January 1924

The Constitution of the USSR was adopted.

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Concession(from Latin concessio - permission, assignment) - a form of agreement on the transfer for use of a set of exclusive rights belonging to the copyright holder. The concession is carried out on a reimbursable basis for a specified period or without specifying a period. The object of the agreement may be the transfer of rights to exploit natural resources, enterprises, equipment and other rights, including the use brand name and (or) commercial designation protected commercial information, trademarks, service marks, etc.

Payment of remuneration can be made in the form of one-time (lump sum) or periodic (royalty) payments, percentage of revenue, markups at the wholesale price of goods or in another form established by the contract.

Concession, concession agreement- a form of public-private partnership, the involvement of the private sector in the effective management of state property or in the provision of services usually provided by the state on mutually beneficial terms.

• 1 Concept
• 2 History
• 3 Types of concession agreements
• 4 Concession agreements in Russia
  • 4.1 History
    • 4.1.1 New Economic Policy (1920s)
  • 4.2 Legislative regulation
• 5 Interesting facts
• 6 Notes
• 7 Literature
• 8 See

Concept

A concession implies that the grantor (state) transfers to the concessionaire the right to exploit natural resources, infrastructure, enterprises, and equipment. In return, the grantor receives remuneration in the form of one-time (lump sum) or periodic (royalty) payments.

Concession agreements are implemented on the basis public property, including the use of budget funds. In the absence of involvement of a public property resource in the partnership, the private partner is vested with the right to conduct a certain business, the exclusive or monopoly rights to conduct which belong to a public legal entity, for example, conducting parking activities, etc.

The role of concessions in the global economy is increasing. If throughout the 20th century concessions were used primarily in subsoil use, then in the 1990s numerous other state-owned objects began to be transferred to concessions.

The objects of the concession agreement are primarily socially significant objects that cannot be privatized, such as airfields, railways, housing and communal services facilities and other infrastructure facilities, as well as public transport systems, healthcare, education, culture and sports facilities.

Story

A concession can be considered as a form of public-private partnership agreement.

With this approach, it can be put on a par with “feeding,” which was formed in the 12th century and existed until the reforms of Peter I, and “farming,” which was the transfer by the state of the right to collect taxes and other state revenues to private individuals (farmers) for a certain fee. .

Feeding

Main article: Feeding

Feeding is a type of grant from the great and appanage princes to their officials, according to which the princely administration was supported at the expense of the local population during the period of service.

Initially, feeding was sporadic.

In accordance with the norms of Russian Pravda, fine collectors (virs), city builders and some other categories received a certain allowance in kind from the population. In the XII-XIV centuries feeding played a role significant role in the folding of the local control system.

The princes sent boyars to cities and volosts as governors and volostels, and other service people as tiuns. The population was obliged to support them (“feed”) during the entire period of service. The feeding system reached its greatest development in the XIV-XV centuries.

Farming

Main article: Farming

Farming- transfer by the state for a certain fee under certain conditions of the right to collect taxes and other state revenues.

The tax farming system is essentially a prototype of concessions, a form of agreement between the state and entrepreneurs.

Initially, farming was used in conditions of subsistence farming, underdeveloped credit, financial difficulties of the state, and weak communications.

Farming first became widespread in Ancient Iran (VI century BC), in Ancient Greece And Ancient Rome(IV century BC).

In the Middle Ages, tax farming became one of the important sources of initial capital accumulation.

Types of concession agreements

In international practice, the following types of concession agreements are distinguished:

• BOT (Build - Operate - Transfer) - “Construction - management - transfer”.

  The concessionaire carries out construction and operation (mainly on the right of ownership) for a specified period, after which the facility is transferred to the state;

• BTO (Build - Transfer - Operate) - “Construction - Transfer - Management”. The concessionaire builds an object, which is transferred to the state (concessor) in ownership immediately after completion of construction, after which it is transferred to the operation of the concessionaire;
• SBI (Build - Own - Operate) - “Construction - Ownership - Management”.

  Answers to the history test 2 options 100 questions

  The concessionaire builds the facility and carries out subsequent operation, owning it on the right of ownership, the duration of which is not limited;

• BOOT (Build - Own - Operate - Transfer) - “Construction - ownership - management - transfer” - ownership and use of a constructed object on the right of private ownership is carried out for a certain period, after which the object becomes the property of the state;
• BBO (Buy - Build - Operate) - “Purchase - Build - Operate” is a form of sale that involves the restoration or expansion of an existing facility.

  The state sells the property to the private sector, which makes the necessary improvements for effective management.

Concession agreements in Russia

Story

New Economic Policy (1920s)

Main article: Foreign concessions in the USSR

During the NEP era, concessions became widespread in the RSFSR. In April 1921, in a speech “On concessions and the development of capitalism,” V. I. Lenin stated:

Isn’t it dangerous to invite capitalists? Doesn’t this mean developing capitalism?

Yes, this means developing capitalism, but this is not dangerous, because power remains in the hands of workers and peasants, and the property of landowners and capitalists is not restored. A concession is a kind of lease agreement. The capitalist becomes a tenant of part of state property, under an agreement, for a certain period, but does not become the owner. Property remains with the state.

Before the Hague Conference of 1922, L. B. Krasin proposed returning up to 90% of nationalized property to foreigners, former owners of enterprises, but only in the form of long-term concessions.

Many foreign concessionaires agreed, but the idea met with strong domestic resistance.

In 1922-1927. The country received more than 2,000 concession offers, of which almost 10% were implemented.

Legislative regulation

In accordance with the Law “On Concession Agreements”, under a concession agreement, one party (the concessionaire) undertakes, at its own expense, to create and (or) reconstruct the real estate determined by this agreement, the ownership of which belongs or will belong to the other party (the grantor), and to carry out activities using the object of the concession agreement.

In turn, the grantor undertakes to provide the concessionaire with the rights to own and use the object of the agreement for the period established by this agreement.

The grantor is the Russian Federation, or a subject of the federation, or a municipal entity. A concessionaire - an individual entrepreneur or a legal entity - by investing in a project under a concession agreement, receives the object of the agreement for management and the majority of the profit.

The state, for its part, can assume part of the costs and guarantee the safety of the invested capital.

Thus, of the listed types of concession agreements, the law “On Concession Agreements” provides only for the first type - BOT (“Construction - Management - Transfer”). In fact, the second type is used - BTO (Build-Transfer-Operate).

However, not all agreements between the state and business, which are actually concession agreements, are regulated by this law. For example, special case concession agreement - Life Cycle Contract.

From January 1, 2014, information on open tenders for the right to conclude concession agreements is subject to posting on the official website of the Russian Federation for posting information on tendering - www.torgi.gov.ru.

• Ilf and Petrov, authors of the novel “The Twelve Chairs” (1928), often call its main characters “concessionaires.”

  Before marrying Gritsatsueva, Ostap Bender says: “What can’t you do for the benefit of the concession!” The corresponding terminology was very widespread at that time.

• Having received a long-term concession to manage the South Container Terminal in the port of Constanta (Romania), the Jebel Ali Directorate from the UAE was able to achieve an increase in cargo turnover by more than 400% and reach 500,000 TEU on November 23, 2005, while in 2004 this figure was 100,000 TEU.

Notes

1. Concession // Economic Dictionary.
2. State and market: concessions as a form of interaction
3. Research project “Risks of participants in public-private partnerships” (inaccessible link - history) (2006).
4. Lenin V.I.

   About concessions and the development of capitalism. Retrieved August 7, 2008. Archived from the original on February 8, 2012.

5. Mechanic Alexander New forms of good neighborliness // Expert. - 2004. - No. 39 (439).
6. Samarina Natalya, Karpov Sergey Market technologies: Concessions in process // Vedomosti. - 2006. - No. 47 (1574).
7. Federal Law of the Russian Federation of July 21, 2005

   N 115-FZ “On concession agreements”

Literature

• Mikhail Subbotin Return of the concession // Russian Business Newspaper. - 2004. - No. 452.
• Kashin Sergey Not into friendship, but into the civil service // The secret of the company. - 2005. - No. 30(117).
• Popov Alexander Unnecessary concessions // Finance. - 2006. - No. 21.

see also

• Rent
• Leasing
• Superficies
• Franchising
• Cession

Concession Information about

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Concession what, Concession who, Concession explanation

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In the autumn of 1920, the social and economic crisis intensified in the country. Peasant farms, devastated by war and crop failure, were in a difficult situation. Hunger began. Workers, dissatisfied with food shortages, unemployment, and equal pay, began strikes. A wave of peasant uprisings swept across the country, covering Ukraine, the Don, Kuban, Siberia, and the Volga region. The largest peasant uprising, which lasted from the summer of 1920 to the summer of 1921, took place in the Tambov province under the leadership of the Socialist Revolutionary A.S. Antonov. The unrest of workers and peasants was supported by the military. On February 28, 1921, the sailors of Kronstadt rebelled. The rebel sailors demanded respect for the rights and freedoms proclaimed in October 1917. Neither the peasants, nor the workers, nor the sailors made a call for the overthrow of the Soviet power. There was dissatisfaction only with the omnipotence of one party - the Bolshevik party.

A split was brewing in the party itself. The issue of democratization, the development of collegiality in management and the weakening of the dictates of the center was increasingly on the agenda. Urgent measures were needed to get the country out of the crisis and restore the destroyed economy.

13.1. New Economic Policy

In March 1921, a decision was made to transition to the New Economic Policy (NEP). The essence of the new economic policy was to build socialism using various forms property, in creating a diverse economy while maintaining the regulatory role of the state.

The goals of the NEP were the following: to relieve social tension, strengthen the social base of Soviet power, provide favorable conditions for building a socialist society, overcome international isolation and restore political and economic relations with other states.

The transition to the NEP was legislatively formalized by the decrees of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee, the Council of People's Commissars and the decisions of the VIII All-Russian Congress of Soviets. During the implementation of the NEP program, surplus appropriation was replaced by a food tax, which was established before the start of spring sowing and could not be changed during the year. In addition, the tax in kind was half the size of the surplus appropriation system. Poor and collective farms were exempt from taxes in kind and received certain benefits. Private trade, the use of hired labor, and leasing of land were allowed. The private sector has strengthened. State-owned enterprises were transferred to self-financing, workers received the right to move from one enterprise to another, private enterprises were allowed to be created, enterprises with up to 21 employees were denationalized, universal labor conscription was abolished, and labor exchanges were introduced. In December 1921, the state began returning enterprises with no more than 10 workers to private owners.

The implementation of the NEP led to an improvement in the situation in the national economy. By 1925, the cultivated area and gross output of large-scale industry had almost reached pre-war levels. Electricity production exceeded the pre-war level by 1.5 times. A planned principle was introduced in the economy.

In 1920, the State Electrification Plan of Russia (GOELRO) was adopted. This was the first long-term plan development of the national economy. Subsequently, planned economy became a characteristic feature of state management of the economy.

Market principles operated in the economy during the NEP period. Commodity-money relations became the main link between the individual parts of the economic mechanism. In 1922, the production of a new monetary unit, the chervonets, began. On the foreign exchange market, both domestically and abroad, chervonets were freely exchanged for gold and major foreign currencies at the pre-war exchange rate of the Tsarist ruble (1 American dollar was equal to 1.94 rubles).

In 1921, the State Bank was recreated, lending to industry and trade on a commercial basis. In addition, a number of specialized banks were created. On October 1, 1923, there were 17 independent banks operating in the country, and by October 1926 their number increased to 61.

The most important result of the NEP was that impressive economic successes were achieved on the basis of fundamentally new, unknown to the history of social relations. In industry, key positions were occupied by state trusts, in the credit and financial sphere - by state and cooperative banks, in agriculture - by small peasant farms, covered by the simplest types of cooperation.

Under the conditions of the NEP, the economic functions of the state also changed: if earlier, under the conditions of “war communism,” the center directly established natural, technological proportions of reproduction by order, now it has moved on to regulating prices, trying to ensure balanced growth using economic methods.

13.2. Changes in the state apparatus under the NEP

There have been changes in the state apparatus. The Council of Workers' and Peasants' Defense was reorganized into the Council of Labor and Defense. The chapters were abolished, and in their place trusts were created - associations of homogeneous or interconnected enterprises that received full economic and financial independence, up to the right to issue long-term bond issues. By the end of 1922, about 90% of industrial enterprises were united into 421 trusts. The enterprises that were part of the trust were withdrawn from state supplies. The state treasury was not responsible for the debts of the trusts. Trusts began to unite into syndicates on the basis of cooperation. The board of syndicates was elected at a meeting of representatives of the trusts. The sale of finished products, the purchase of raw materials, materials and equipment were carried out on the wholesale market, in connection with which a wide network of trading enterprises, fairs, and commodity exchanges arose. The functions of domestic trade were transferred to the People's Commissariat of Domestic Trade with broad rights in the field of price regulation.

VSNKh, having lost the right to intervene in the current activities of enterprises, turned into a coordination center.

In December 1921, the Cheka was reorganized. Instead, the State Political Directorate (GPU) was created under the NKVD. With the formation of the USSR, the GPU was reorganized into the United State Political Administration (OGPU) under the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR. Political departments were created locally. Within the GPU and political departments, special departments were created that fought crimes in the army and navy, and transport departments that fought counter-revolution in transport. The activities of the OGPU focused on solving political and state crimes.

A new principle of organization was introduced in the army. Its number was reduced to 600 thousand people. Along with personnel units, territorial ones began to be created. The armed forces began to be divided into land, sea, air and special forces, the OGPU and convoy guards. Compulsory military service was introduced for men aged 19 to 40 years. In 1924, the period of service in the army was established as two years, in the navy as four.

13.3. Education USSR

The Constitution of the RSFSR of 1918 enshrined the principle of national-territorial federation as a form of government. From 1918 to 1920, more than 20 national autonomous entities (republics and regions) arose on the territory of the RSFSR. The resulting Soviet national republics - Ukrainian, Belarusian and others were grouped around the RSFSR due to economic, military and other necessity.

The form of unification that emerged between the republics was called a contractual federation. The republics entered into financial agreements among themselves, formed common production plans, and pooled raw materials and commodity funds. The following were created: a unified command of military formations, National Economic Councils, railway transport, finance, labor commissariats. With the multi-party system that existed, the leading role was recognized and belonged to the Communist Party. The socialist idea acted as a guarantor of the unity of the new state formation.

In March 1922, the union of the republics of Transcaucasia was formed - the Transcaucasian SFSR, which united Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia. For internal and international reasons, a need arose to unite independent Soviet republic states into a common state.

In August 1922, a commission was formed to develop a project for a future federal state. Were offered various options: a confederation of republics with the preservation of their own currency and army, autonomy, i.e. the formation of Soviet republics that are part of the RSFSR with the rights of autonomy, and a federation of equal republics. The third option was accepted. In the fall of 1922, the project was discussed at the congresses of the Soviets of Transcaucasia, Belarus, and Ukraine, and on December 30, 1922, the 1st All-Union Congress of Soviets of the USSR approved the Declaration and Treaty on the Formation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and elected a Central Executive Committee (CEC) with four chairmen , one from each republic: M.I. Kalinin (RSFSR), G.I. Petrovsky (Ukrainian SSR), A.G. Chervyakov (BSSR), N.N. Narimanov (ZSFSR).

In 1925, the Uzbek SSR and the Turkmen SSR joined the USSR. In 1929, the Tajik ASSR as part of the Uzbek SSR was transformed into a Union Republic and accepted into the USSR. In 1936, the USSR already consisted of 11 subjects. It included the Kazakh and Kyrgyz union republics. The formation of the USSR contributed to the strengthening of the country's military and economic power. Russian empire, which disintegrated as a result of the revolution, was revived again, on the basis of voluntary unification. The unification of the republics ensured their independence and made it possible to more successfully solve foreign policy problems, both defense and diplomatic.

The All-Union Congress of Soviets became the highest legislative body of the new state. Congresses were to meet annually, and extraordinary congresses were allowed. In the period between Congresses of Soviets, the supreme authority was the Central Executive Committee of the Union, which consisted of two chambers - the Council of the Union and the Council of Nationalities. The Central Executive Committee of the USSR formed the first union government - the Council of People's Commissars, headed by V.I. Lenin. After his death, A.I. became the chairman of the Council of People's Commissars. Rykov (until 1930).

The Council of People's Commissars of the USSR supervised the activities of the all-Union People's Commissariats: foreign, military and maritime affairs, foreign trade, communications, posts and telegraphs, the State Bank and the State Planning Committee.

The Central Executive Committee of the USSR was given the right to issue decrees and resolutions binding on all union republics. Between sessions of the Central Election Commission, all legislative and executive powers were transferred to its presidium.

The territorial and administrative division of the country changed: provinces, districts, and volosts were transformed into regions, territories, and districts. National districts and districts were created.

13.4. Codification of Soviet law

During the period under review, the codification of Soviet law was carried out. The RSFSR adopted: Criminal, Civil, Criminal Procedure Codes, Code of Labor Laws and Code of Laws on Marriage, Family and Guardianship. In 1922, judicial reform was carried out and the prosecutor's office of the RSFSR was created.

Constitutional law. The Constitution of 1918 was in force in the RSFSR, and with the adoption by the Second Congress of Soviets of the USSR on January 31, 1924 of the Basic Law of the USSR - the Constitution of the USSR, which consisted of two sections - the Declaration on the Formation of the USSR and the Treaty on the Formation of the USSR - the need arose to adopt a new Constitution, which and was done in 1925. Moscow became the capital of the USSR and the RSFSR.

The Constitution of the USSR established a new state association of republics - the federation and established a system higher authorities authorities of the USSR and union republics: Congress of Soviets, Central Executive Committee, Presidium of the Central Executive Committee, Council of People's Commissars of the USSR.

The Union's jurisdiction included foreign relations and foreign trade, resolving issues of war and peace, organizing and directing the armed forces, general management and planning of the economy and budget, and developing the foundations of legislation. The Constitution provided for the creation of the Supreme Court under the All-Russian Central Executive Committee of the USSR.

On May 11, 1925, a new Constitution of the RSFSR was adopted, which established the RSFSR as a federal state with autonomous entities. The Constitution states: “The RSFSR is a socialist state of workers and peasants, built on the basis of a federation of national Soviet republics,” in which all power belongs to the Soviets of workers, peasants, Cossacks and Red Army deputies. The Constitution of the RSFSR defined the powers of the state authorities of the republic, the structure of which corresponded to the structure of similar bodies of the USSR. In terms of their content, the Constitution of the USSR of 1924 and the Constitution of the RSFSR of 1925 complemented each other. Part of the powers of the RSFSR was transferred to the jurisdiction of the allied authorities and administration. The Constitution of the RSFSR also introduced new authorities - the presidiums of the executive committees of local Soviets. The presidiums were elected by the executive committees. The powers of Councils at all levels and the procedure for their elections were discussed in some detail. The previous norms of representation, establishing the advantages of workers over peasants, were preserved. The Constitution of the RSFSR enshrined the provision that land, factories, factories, water and air transport were the property of the state. The Constitution of the RSFSR consisted of 6 sections, 8 chapters and 89 articles.

Civil law. Each union republic had its own civil code. The Civil Code of the RSFSR of 1922, in force until 1964, consisted of the General Part, property law, obligations and inheritance law.

The General Part, which consisted of several articles, characterized the operation of the Civil Code throughout the territory of the RSFSR, noting that civil rights are protected by law, except in cases where they conflict with the social and economic purpose. All citizens of the RSFSR were recognized as subjects of law. Gender, race, nationality, religion, origin had no influence on civil legal capacity, which began at the age of 18.

Legal entities were recognized as associations of persons, institutions or organizations that could acquire rights to property, enter into obligations, seek and answer in court.

Transactions, i.e. actions aimed at establishing, changing or terminating civil legal relations could be unilateral and mutual. They could be done orally or in writing. Written documents were divided into simple and notarized. Transactions made in violation of the law were considered invalid. The limitation period was set at three years.

The Civil Code distinguished between state, cooperative and private property. Land, mineral resources, forests, waters, railways and their rolling stock were declared the exclusive property of the state. The subject of private property could be non-municipalized buildings, industrial enterprises that had hired workers in the number provided by law (up to 20 people), tools and means of production, money, securities and any property that has not been withdrawn from circulation. Cooperative organizations could own all kinds of property on an equal basis with private individuals. Cooperative industrial enterprises were not limited in the number of workers they hired. The disposal of state property was carried out by state bodies. State property was not subject to alienation into the ownership of private individuals and legal entities. It could not be the subject of a pledge.

Agreements for the provision of city plots for development were concluded by municipal departments with individuals and legal entities for the following terms: for stone and reinforced concrete buildings - up to 65 years, for mixed buildings - up to 60 years, for wooden buildings - up to 50 years.

Property that was not withdrawn from circulation could be the subject of a pledge. The mortgagor must be the owner of the property. The pledge agreement for the building and the right of development was certified by a notary. The mortgaged property, except for the building and the right of development, was transferred to the mortgagee.

Law of obligations. The Civil Code provides for the grounds for the emergence and termination of agreements on obligations. The agreement was considered concluded when the parties agreed with each other on all its points. An agreement for an amount over 500 rubles must be made in writing. A gift agreement for an amount over 1000 rubles was certified by a notary. Interest under the loan agreement was determined at 6% per annum of the debt amount. If the contract was declared invalid due to a violation of the law, then the parties were obliged to return to each other everything received under the contract.

Property lease agreements are common. The term of employment must not exceed 12 years. The period of employment by state and cooperative organizations of state-owned enterprises should not exceed 24 years.

Living space in houses owned by state enterprises was rented out under contracts for a certain period.

The subject of purchase and sale could only be non-municipalized and demunicipalized residential buildings, subject to the purchase of only one building per family. One property could be sold within three years. The purchase and sale agreement for a building must be certified by a notary.

Agreements of barter, loan, contract, guarantee, commission, partnership, and insurance were practiced.

A loan agreement for an amount over 50 rubles must be concluded in writing. The lender could demand interest only if it was provided for in the contract. Interest was accrued only on the principal amount of the debt.

Under a work contract, one party (contractor) was obliged to perform certain work, and the other party (customer) was obliged to pay the agreed remuneration for all the work or in parts.

According to the partnership agreement, there was an obligation to combine contributions to achieve an economic goal. A partnership was recognized as full when the participants were responsible for the obligations of the partnership with all their property as joint and several debtors. A limited partnership consisted of unlimitedly responsible partners and investors. In an LLP, all participants were equally liable for the obligations of the partnership, not only with the contributions made, but also with personal property.

Inheritance law. The Civil Code allowed inheritance by law and will. According to the law, children, grandchildren and great-grandchildren, the surviving spouse and persons who were dependent on the deceased for at least one year before his death were recognized as heirs. Children born after the death of the testator could also be heirs. The testator had the right to bequeath property to the state or its individual institutions and enterprises, party, trade union and other public organizations. It was impossible to deprive minor children of inheritance rights.

When inheriting by law, all property was divided into equal parts among all heirs. The inheritance was considered escheated if the heirs did not register the right to inheritance with a notary within six months after the death of the testator.

Civil procedural law. In July 1923, at the 2nd session of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee, the Civil Procedural Code of the RSFSR was adopted (valid until 1964), which set out the rules for conducting legal proceedings on civil cases. The basis for starting the process was a statement from the interested party. The participation of a prosecutor was provided for, who, by court decision, could intervene in the case at any stage of the process. Legal proceedings were conducted in the language of the majority of the population of the area. If the parties or witnesses did not speak the language in which the proceedings were conducted, the court was obliged to invite translators. The parties could conduct the case in court in person or through their representatives. The process was based on the principles of transparency and publicity. All cases arising from civil relations, both between private individuals and between state, cooperative and other persons, were subject to the jurisdiction of the people's court. public organizations, as well as disputes between collective farms. All civil cases were considered by a court composed of a presiding judge and two lay judges. A fee was collected from each statement of claim. Procedural deadlines were determined: cases of labor disputes were considered within 5 days, cases of alimony - from 10 to 20 days. In cases of alimony collection, measures were taken to secure the claim in the form of seizure of a share of earnings and an inventory of property. Cases were heard publicly and orally. Minutes were kept at each court hearing.

The main types of evidence were witness testimony, written evidence, and examination. The decision was made by a majority vote; the judge could add his own dissenting opinion to the case. The decision of the people's court could be appealed to the regional or Supreme Court within 10 days.

Family law. In 1926, the second Code of Laws on Marriage, Family and Guardianship of the RSFSR was adopted. A uniform minimum age for marriage was established - 18 years. Those getting married could leave their premarital surnames. In exceptional cases, local executive committees of the Soviets were given the right to lower the marriageable age for women, but not by more than one year. The actual marriage was legalized. The conditions for recognition of a de facto marriage were cohabitation, running a common household and raising children. The Code gave the court the right to deprive parents of parental rights and transfer children to guardianship authorities. Guardianship was established over children under the age of 14, over the mentally ill and the mentally ill. The possibility of adoption of minor children was established. Adoptive parents, at their request, could be recorded in the birth register as parents, with the adopted child assigned the adoptive parent's surname and patronymic.

Marriages between persons, one of whom was in another marriage, were not subject to registration; between the mentally ill and the mentally ill; between close relatives.

The couple enjoyed complete freedom to choose their occupations and professions. The procedure for running a common household was established by mutual agreement. Property owned by spouses before marriage remained separate. Property acquired during the marriage was considered common. A change of residence by one spouse did not oblige the other to follow him. Spouses could enter into all property and contractual relations permitted by law. The disabled spouse had the right to receive maintenance from the other spouse.

The marriage ended with the death of one of the spouses. During the life of the spouses, the marriage could be terminated by divorce through the courts. The People's Court was obliged to establish the reasons for the divorce and take measures to reconcile the spouses. The decision on divorce was made by the regional, regional, district, city or Supreme Court.

The father and mother of the child were recorded in the birth register. When a child was born to an unmarried mother, the child was registered using the mother's surname with a patronymic assigned at her direction. Illegitimate children were given equal rights to those born during marriage. Alimony was set at judicial procedure. For the maintenance of one child, one quarter of the salary received was recovered, for the maintenance of two children - one third, and for the maintenance of three or more children - half of the defendant's salary.

The children's surname and citizenship were determined by agreement between the parents. Parents were obliged to take care of minor children, they were given the right to send their children for upbringing and education. Children are obliged to support their needy and disabled parents.

Labor law. In November 1922, the second Labor Code of the RSFSR was adopted. The Labor Code applied to all persons who worked for hire, to all organizations and individuals who used hired labor. Particular attention was paid to the regulation of labor relations in the private sector. Sanctions were provided for violators of labor discipline. A number of articles protected the interests of workers from the arbitrariness of private entrepreneurs. Social insurance was introduced, which covered all types of payments: illness, pregnancy, disability, survivor's pension. All payments were made from the funds of the enterprise or the employer. Labor disputes were considered in labor sessions of the courts.

Universal labor conscription was abolished. The principle of free hiring of labor was established. Employment contracts were concluded on the principle of voluntariness for a definite (no more than one year) and for an indefinite period. The employment contract could be terminated by agreement of the parties, at the request of the employer and at the request of the employee, who must notify the employer 7 days in advance (in case of a contract for an indefinite period). The terms of the employment contract were determined by agreement of the parties. In exceptional cases, the Code also allowed for universal labor conscription. An institute appeared in the Code collective agreements concluded by trade unions with the enterprise. Instead of social security, social insurance was introduced, which extended to employees. Insurance premiums were contributed by enterprises and all users of hired labor, without the right of deduction from the insured’s salary. Social insurance provided not only for the provision of temporary disability benefits, but also for the provision of medical care, as well as the issuance of additional benefits, unemployment benefits, disability benefits, and in the event of the death of the breadwinner. The transition from an 8-hour working day to a 7-hour day began. This transition was carried out in 1928 - 1932. without salary reduction.

Mandatory intermediation of stock exchanges in the hiring of workers and employees has been abolished.

Financial right. The tax system has been streamlined. The natural tax was replaced by a monetary one. In addition to direct taxes, indirect taxes were introduced. A number of decisions were made on the transfer of part of the agricultural tax to the volost budget, on the transfer of enterprises and property (mills and forges) to the volosts. The idea of ​​transforming the volost “into a financial and economic unit” was implemented. In 1921 - 1923, banknotes were exchanged: first, 1 ruble was exchanged for 10,000 rubles, and then again for 100 rubles. Savings banks were created. Along with state banks, commercial, cooperative, communal banks, agricultural credit institutions, and agricultural credit partnerships were created. The credit system was restored, internal government loans were introduced. A unified monetary and credit system was established for all union republics. A unified budget of the USSR was established. All union republics, except the RSFSR, received subsidies from the all-Union budget. The Union republics, with the permission of the Union, could introduce additional taxes and fees that went into their budgets.

Land law. In May 1922, the Law on Labor Land Use was adopted, and in December - the Land Code of the RSFSR. The Code consolidated the abolition of private ownership of land, mineral resources, water and forests. Particular attention was paid to agricultural lands. The Land Code consisted of the Basic Provisions and three parts: on labor land use, on urban lands and state land properties, on land management and resettlement. All citizens of the RSFSR who wished to cultivate it with their own labor had the right to use land for farming. This right was unlimited. The purchase and sale, will, donation and pledge of land were prohibited. Labor leases and the use of hired labor were allowed in compliance with all standards labor law. Peasants were given freedom to choose forms of land use: artels, communes, TOZs, district (cut, farm), communal with equalized redistributions. Preference was given to collective forms of labor.

On December 15, 1928, the All-Russian Central Executive Committee of the USSR adopted the General Principles of Land Use and Land Management of the USSR and Union Republics, which regulated relations related to land use and land management.

Criminal law. The Criminal Code of the RSFSR was adopted on May 26, 1922 and was in force until 1961. The Criminal Code set the task of strengthening legal protection the workers' state from crimes and from socially dangerous elements. Protection was carried out by applying penalties or other measures to violators of the revolutionary legal order social protection.

The Criminal Code consisted of two parts: General and Special. The Code applied to all crimes committed within the RSFSR by both its citizens and foreigners. Any action or inaction directed against the Soviet system or violating the rule of law established by the workers' and peasants' government "for the period of time transitional to the communist system" was considered a crime. Criminal liability began at the age of 14. Medical and pedagogical measures were applied to adolescents from 14 to 16 years of age. Article 20 of the Criminal Code provided for exemption from liability in the event of harm caused in the conditions of necessary defense.

Crime system. In the first place were state crimes: counter-revolutionary, aimed at overthrowing Soviet power; armed uprisings to seize territory; espionage; propaganda and agitation, expressed in a call for the overthrow of Soviet power; production and storage of literature of a counter-revolutionary nature; inventing and spreading false rumors for counter-revolutionary purposes.

Crimes against the order of government included: participation in mass riots, organization and participation in gangs (armed gangs), aiding and concealing gangs, tax evasion, evasion of military service, forgery of documents, resistance to authority, forgery of banknotes and documents, concealment collections and ancient monuments.

Official crimes were recognized as abuse of power, inaction of power, negligent attitude towards service, official forgery, taking a bribe, and disclosing secret information.

The Criminal Code included crimes that violated the rules on the separation of church and state: using the religious prejudices of the masses to overthrow the government; committing deceptive acts with the aim of inciting superstition among the masses; teaching religious doctrines to children and minors; collection of fees in favor of church and religious organizations; assignment of administrative or judicial functions by religious or church organizations.

Economic crimes included labor desertion, production of substandard products, failure to fulfill contractual obligations, violation of the Labor Code by the employer, obstruction of the legitimate activities of trade unions, eviction of workers and government employees from apartments and charging rents above those established by the Council of People's Commissars, and others.

A large group consisted of crimes against life, health, freedom and dignity of the individual: intentional murder, murder by negligence, assistance or incitement to suicide minor, artificial termination of pregnancy is not medical institutions, intentional bodily harm resulting in danger to life and health, exceeding the limits of necessary defense, unlawful deprivation of liberty and others.

Important place The Criminal Code included property crimes: theft of other people's property, purchase of stolen goods, theft of livestock, damage and destruction of property belonging to private individuals, misappropriation or embezzlement of property official, fraud, forgery of official papers and receipts, sale of unusable seed material, deliberate destruction of property by arson or drowning.

Military crimes included insult by subordinate military personnel to their superior, unauthorized leaving of service, failure to report to the place of duty from a business trip on time without good reason, failure to comply with military regulations, evasion of military service, abuse of power, and looting.

The Criminal Code included crimes that constituted violations of rules protecting public health, public safety and public order, as well as crimes that constituted remnants of tribal life.

As measures of social protection of a judicial-correctional nature, the following were used: declaration of an enemy of the people with deprivation of citizenship of the union republic and mandatory expulsion from the republic, imprisonment in forced labor camps, imprisonment in places of detention, forced labor without imprisonment, defeat in political rights, dismissal from office, public censure, confiscation of property, fine, imposition of obligations to make amends for the harm caused, warning.

Imprisonment in cases of espionage, sabotage, sabotage is set for up to 10 years. Imprisonment for a term of up to three years was served in places of detention, over three years - in forced labor camps.

Medical and pedagogical measures were applied to minors and the mentally ill.

In cases pending before revolutionary tribunals, execution was used.

Criminal process. In May 1922, the first Criminal Procedure Code of the RSFSR was adopted, which was in force until 1960. The Code defines the principles of criminal proceedings: transparency, publicity of meetings, conducting the process in the language of the majority of the population of the area. The court was not limited by any formal obligations; the process completely depended on it. An oath was not allowed as evidence. The procedure for inquiry and investigation was regulated in detail. When passing a verdict, all issues were decided by a majority vote. The judge, who remained in the minority, had the right to express his dissenting opinion in writing, which was attached to the verdict, but was not subject to publication. The appeal was cancelled. A cassation procedure for appealing verdicts was established. The Code also contained standards for the execution of sentences.

To regulate relations in connection with the execution of sentences, the Decree of the Council of People's Commissars "On the use of labor of prisoners in places of deprivation of liberty and those serving forced labor without imprisonment" was adopted in 1921. Labor was put in first place in the re-education of convicts.

In 1924, the All-Russian Central Executive Committee approved the Correctional Labor Code of the RSFSR (ITC). The Code set the goals of punishing and re-educating criminals and isolating them from society. The Code stated that detention in correctional institutions should be expedient and should not be intended to cause physical suffering or humiliation of human dignity. Instead of prisons there should be labor colonies. The regime of detention of prisoners varied depending on class affiliation. Control over places of detention was carried out through public commissions, and oversight of legality was carried out by prosecutors.

At the XV Congress of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks in 1927, the work of the justice authorities was seriously criticized. The congress pointed out the need to improve the activities of the judiciary in the fight against bureaucracy, and to bring to justice administrative and business workers guilty of criminal mismanagement. There was a need for better leadership of the judiciary by higher courts. In 1929, a provision was adopted on the Supreme Court of the USSR, which was given the right to give directives to the Supreme Courts of the Union republics and check the quality of their work. The supervisory functions of the Supreme Court of the USSR have expanded significantly.

NEW ECONOMIC POLICY (NEP)(1921-1929)

NEP is a policy of the Soviet government, under which all enterprises of one industry were subordinate to a single central management body - the main committee (head office). Changed the policy of “war communism”. The transition from “war communism” to the NEP was proclaimed by the X Congress of the Russian Communist Party in March 1921. The initial idea of ​​the transition was formulated in the works of V.I. Lenin 1921-1923: the ultimate goal remains the same - socialism, but the situation in Russia after the civil war dictates the need resort to a “reformist” method of action in fundamental issues of economic construction. Instead of a direct and complete breakdown of the old system to replace it with a new socio-economic structure, carried out during the years of “war communism”, the Bolsheviks took a “reformist” approach: not to break the old socio-economic structure, trade, small farming, small business, capitalism, but carefully and gradually master them and gain the opportunity to subject them to government regulation. In Lenin's last works, the concept of NEP included ideas about the use of commodity-money relations, all forms of ownership - state, cooperative, private, mixed, self-financing. It was proposed to temporarily retreat from the achieved “military-communist” gains, to take a step back in order to gain strength for the leap to socialism.

Initially, the framework of the NEP reforms was determined by the party leadership by the extent to which the reforms strengthened its monopoly on power. The main measures taken within the framework of the NEP: surplus appropriation was replaced by a food tax, followed by new measures designed to interest broad social strata in the results of their economic activities. Free trade was legalized, private individuals received the right to engage in handicrafts and open industrial enterprises with up to a hundred workers. Small nationalized enterprises were returned to their former owners. In 1922 the right to lease land and use hired labor was recognized; The system of labor duties and labor mobilizations was abolished. Payment in kind was replaced by cash, a new state bank was established and the banking system was restored.

The ruling party carried out all these changes without abandoning its ideological views and command methods of managing socio-political and economic processes. “War communism” gradually lost ground.

For its development, the NEP needed the decentralization of economic management, and in August 1921 the Council of Labor and Defense (SLO) adopted a resolution to reorganize the central administration system, in which all enterprises of the same industry were subordinate to a single central management body - the main committee (main committee). The number of branch headquarters was reduced, and only large industry and basic sectors of the economy remained in the hands of the state.

Partial denationalization of property, privatization of many previously nationalized enterprises, a system of running the economy based on cost accounting, competition, and the introduction of leasing of joint ventures - all these are characteristic features of the NEP. At the same time, these “capitalist” economic elements were combined with coercive measures adopted during the years of “war communism.”

The NEP led to a rapid economic recovery. The economic interest that appeared among peasants in the production of agricultural products made it possible to quickly saturate the market with food and overcome the consequences of the hungry years of “war communism.”

However, already at the early stage of the NEP (1921-1923), recognition of the role of the market was combined with measures to abolish it. Most Communist Party leaders viewed the NEP as a “necessary evil,” fearing that it would lead to the restoration of capitalism. Many Bolsheviks retained “military-communist” illusions that the destruction of private property, trade, money, equality in the distribution of material goods lead to communism, and the NEP is a betrayal of communism. In essence, the NEP was designed to continue the course towards socialism, through maneuvering, social compromise with the majority of the population, to move the country towards the party’s goal - socialism, although more slowly and with less risk. It was believed that in market relations the role of the state was the same as under “war communism,” and that it should carry out economic reform within the framework of “socialism.” All this was taken into account in the laws adopted in 1922 and in subsequent legislative acts.

The admission of market mechanisms, which led to economic recovery, allowed the political regime to strengthen. However, its fundamental incompatibility with the essence of the NEP as a temporary economic compromise with the peasantry and bourgeois elements of the city inevitably led to the rejection of the idea of ​​the NEP. Even in the most favorable years for its development (until the mid-20s), progressive steps in pursuing this policy were made uncertainly, contradictorily, with an eye to the past stage of “war communism.”

Soviet and, for the most part, post-Soviet historiography, reducing the reasons for the collapse of the NEP to purely economic factors, deprived itself of the opportunity to fully reveal its contradictions - between the requirements for the normal functioning of the economy and the political priorities of the party leadership, aimed first at limiting and then completely crowding out private manufacturer.

The country’s leadership’s interpretation of the dictatorship of the proletariat as the suppression of all those who disagree with it, as well as the continued adherence of the majority of the party’s cadres to the “military-communist” views adopted during the civil war, reflected the communists’ inherent desire to achieve their ideological principles. At the same time, the strategic goal of the party (socialism) remained the same, and the NEP was seen as a temporary retreat from the “war communism” achieved over the years. Therefore, everything was done to prevent the NEP from going beyond limits dangerous for this purpose.

Market methods of regulating the economy in NEP Russia were combined with non-economic methods, with administrative intervention. The predominance of state ownership of the means of production and large-scale industry was the objective basis for such intervention.

During the NEP years, the party and state leaders did not want reforms, but were concerned that the private sector would gain an advantage over the public sector. Fearful of the NEP, they took measures to discredit it. Official propaganda treated the private trader in every possible way, and the image of the “NEPman” as an exploiter, a class enemy, was formed in the public consciousness. Since the mid-20s, measures to curb the development of the NEP gave way to a course towards its curtailment. The dismantling of NEPA began behind the scenes, first with measures to tax the private sector, then depriving it of legal guarantees. At the same time, loyalty to the new economic policy was proclaimed at all party forums. On December 27, 1929, in a speech at a conference of Marxist historians, Stalin stated: “If we adhere to the NEP, it is because it serves the cause of socialism. And when it ceases to serve the cause of socialism, we will throw the new economic policy to hell.”

At the end of the 20s, considering that the new economic policy had ceased to serve socialism, the Stalinist leadership discarded it. The methods by which it curtailed the NEP indicate the difference in the approaches of Stalin and Lenin to the new economic policy. According to Lenin, with the transition to socialism, the NEP will become obsolete in the course of the evolutionary process. But by the end of the 20s there was no socialism in Russia yet, although it had been proclaimed, the NEP had not outlived its usefulness, but Stalin, contrary to Lenin, made the “transition to socialism” by violent, revolutionary means.

One of the negative aspects of this “transition” was the policy of the Stalinist leadership to eliminate the so-called “exploiting classes”. During its implementation, the village “bourgeoisie” (kulaks) were “dekulakized”, all their property was confiscated, exiled to Siberia, and the “remnants of the urban bourgeoisie” - entrepreneurs engaged in private trade, crafts and the sale of their products (“NEPmen”), as well as their family members were deprived of political rights (“disenfranchised”); many were prosecuted.

NEP (details)

In the extreme conditions of the civil war carried out by the Soviet government domestic politics called "war communism". The prerequisites for its implementation were laid by the widespread nationalization of industry and the creation of a state apparatus to manage it (primarily the All-Russian Council of the National Economy - VSNKh), the experience of military-political solutions to food problems through committees of the poor in the countryside. On the one hand, the policy of “war communism” was perceived by part of the country’s leadership as a natural step towards the rapid construction of market-free socialism, which supposedly corresponded to the principles of Marxist theory. In this they hoped to rely on the collectivist ideas of millions of workers and poor peasants who were ready to divide all property in the country equally. On the other hand, it was a forced policy, caused by the violation of traditional economic ties between city and countryside, and the need to mobilize all resources to win the civil war.

The internal situation in the Soviet country was extremely difficult. The country is in crisis:

Political- in the summer of 1920, peasant uprisings broke out in the Tambov and Voronezh provinces (as they were called - “kulak rebellions”) - Antonovism. Peasants' dissatisfaction with surplus appropriation grew into a real peasant war: Makhno's detachments in Ukraine and Antov's “peasant army” in the Tambov region numbered 50 thousand people at the beginning of 1921, the total number of detachments formed in the Urals, Western Siberia, Pomerania , in the Kuban and Don, reached 200 thousand people. On March 1, 1921, the sailors of Kronstadt rebelled. They put forward the slogans “Power to the Soviets, not parties!”, “Soviets without communists!” The rebellion in Kronstadt was eliminated, but peasant uprisings continued. These uprisings were not an accident." In each of them, to a greater or lesser extent, there was an element of organization. It was contributed by a wide range of political forces: from monarchists to socialists. These disparate forces were united by the desire to take control of the emerging popular movement and, relying on it, to eliminate the power of the Bolsheviks;

Economic- the national economy was fragmented. The country produced 3 percent of pig iron; oil was produced 2.5 times less than in 1913. Industrial production fell to 4-2 percent of 1913 levels. The country lagged behind the United States in iron production by 72 times, in steel by 52 times, and in oil production by 19 times. If in 1913 Russia smelted 4.2 million tons of pig iron, then in 1920 it was only 115 thousand tons. This is approximately the same amount as was received in 1718 under Peter I;

Social- Hunger, poverty, unemployment were rampant in the country, crime was rampant, and child homelessness was rampant. The declassification of the working class intensified, people left the cities and went to the countryside so as not to die of hunger. This led to a reduction in the number of industrial workers by almost half (1 million 270 thousand people in 1920 versus 2 million 400 thousand people in 1913). In 1921, about 40 provinces with a population of 90 million were starving, of which 40 million were on the verge of death. 5 million people died from hunger. Child crime, compared to 1913, has increased 7.4 times. Epidemics of typhoid, cholera, and smallpox raged in the country.

Immediate, most decisive and energetic measures were needed to improve the situation of the working people and increase the productive forces.

In March 1921, at the X Congress of the RCP (b), a course towards a new economic policy (NEP) was adopted. This policy was introduced seriously and for a long time.

The purpose of adopting the NEP was aimed at:

To overcome the devastation in the country, restore the economy;

Creating the foundation of socialism;

Development of large industry;

Displacement and liquidation of capitalist elements;

Strengthening the alliance of the working class and peasantry.

“The essence of the new economic policy,” said Lenin, “is the union of the proletariat and the peasantry, the essence lies in the union of the avant-garde, the proletariat, with the broad peasant field.”

The ways to accomplish these tasks were:

All-round development of cooperation;

Widespread encouragement of trade;

The use of material incentives and economic calculations.

Replacing the surplus appropriation system with a tax in kind (the peasant could sell the remaining products after paying the tax in kind at his own discretion - either to the state or on the free market);

Introduction of free trade and turnover;

Allowance of private small commercial and industrial enterprises, while maintaining the leading industries (banks, transport, large industry, foreign trade) in the hands of the state;

Permission to rent concessions, mixed companies;

Providing freedom of action to state-owned enterprises (introducing self-financing, self-financing, product sales, self-sufficiency);

Introduction of material incentives for workers;

Elimination of rigid sectoral formations of an administrative nature - headquarters and centers;

Introduction of territorial - sectoral management of industry;

Carrying out monetary reform;

Transition from in-kind to cash wages;

Streamlining the income tax (income tax was divided into basic, which was paid by all citizens except pensioners, and progressive - paid by NEPmen, privately practicing doctors, and all those who received additional income). The greater the profit, the greater the tax. A profit limit was introduced;

Permission to hire labor, rent land, enterprises;

Revival of the credit system - the State Bank was recreated, a number of specialized banks were formed;

The introduction of the NEP caused a change in the social structure and way of life of people. The NEP provided organizational economic freedom to people and gave them the opportunity to show initiative and entrepreneurship. Private enterprises were created everywhere in the country, self-financing was introduced at state enterprises, a struggle arose against bureaucracy and administrative-command habits, and culture improved in all spheres of human activity. The introduction of a tax in kind in the countryside made it possible for the broad development of agriculture, including strong owners, who were later called “kulaks.”

The most colorful figure of that time was the new Soviet bourgeoisie - the “NEPmen”. These people largely defined the face of their era, but they were, as it were, outside of Soviet society: they were deprived of voting rights and could not be members of trade unions. Among the Nepmen, the old bourgeoisie had a large specific gravity(from 30 to 50 percent depending on the type of occupation). The rest of the Nepmen came from among Soviet employees, peasants and artisans. Due to the rapid turnover of capital, the main area of ​​activity of the Nepmen was trade. Store shelves began to quickly fill with goods and products.

At the same time, criticism of Lenin and the NEP as a “disastrous petty-bourgeois policy” was heard throughout the country.

Many communists left the RCP (b), believing that the introduction of the NEP meant the restoration of capitalism and a betrayal of socialist principles. At the same time, it should be noted that, despite partial denationalization and concession, the state retained at its disposal the most powerful sector of the national economy. Basic industries remained completely outside the market - energy, metallurgy, oil production and oil refining, coal mining, defense industry foreign trade, railways, communications.

Important points of the new economic policy:

The peasant was given the opportunity to truly become a master;

Small and medium-sized entrepreneurs were given freedom of development;

Monetary reform, the introduction of convertible currency - the chervonets - stabilized the financial situation in the country.

In 1923, all types of natural taxation in the countryside were replaced by a single agricultural tax in cash, which, of course, was beneficial to the peasant, because allowed you to maneuver crop rotation at your own discretion and determine the direction of development of your farm in terms of growing certain crops, raising livestock, producing handicrafts, etc.

On the basis of the NEP, rapid economic growth began in the city and countryside, and the living standards of the working people rose. The market mechanism allowed short time restore industry, the size of the working class and, most importantly, increase labor productivity. Already by the end of 1923 year it more than doubled. By 1925, the country had restored the destroyed national economy.

The New Economic Policy made it possible:

Economic relations between city and countryside;

Development of industry based on electrification;

Cooperation based on the country's population;

The widespread introduction of cost accounting and personal interest in the results of labor;

Improving government planning and management;

The fight against bureaucracy, administrative and command habits;

Improving culture in all spheres of human activity.

Showing a certain flexibility in economic policy, the Bolsheviks had no doubts or hesitations in strengthening the control of the ruling party over the political and spiritual life of society.

The most important instrument in the hands of the Bolsheviks here were the bodies of the Cheka (from the 1922 congress - the GPU). This apparatus was not only preserved in the form in which it existed during the era of the civil war, but also developed rapidly, surrounded by the special care of those in power, and more and more fully embraced state, party, economic and other public institutions. There is a widespread opinion that the initiator of these repressive and fiscal measures and their implementer was F.E. Dzerzhinsky, in fact, this is not so. Archival sources and research by historians allow us to note that at the head of the terror was L.D. Trotsky (Bronstein), who, as chairman of the Revolutionary Military Council, and then the People's Commissar of the Military and Naval Affairs, had punitive bodies unaccountable to the party that administered their justice and reprisals, were in his hands a valid means of usurping power and establishing a personal military-political dictatorship in the country.

During the NEP years, many legally published newspapers and magazines, party associations, and other parties were closed, and the last underground groups of right-wing Socialist Revolutionaries and Mensheviks were liquidated.

Through an extensive system of secret employees of the Cheka-GPU, control was established over the political sentiments of civil servants, workers and peasants. Particular attention was paid to kulaks and urban private entrepreneurs, as well as the intelligentsia. At the same time, it should be noted that the Soviet government sought to involve the old intelligentsia in active labor activity. Specialists in various fields of knowledge were provided with more tolerable living and working conditions compared to the general population.

This was especially true for those who were in one way or another connected with strengthening the scientific, economic and defense potential of the state.

The transition to the NEP contributed to the return of emigrants to their homeland. For 1921-1931 181,432 emigrants returned to Russia, of which 121,843 (two thirds) - in 1921,

However, the class approach remained the main principle of building government policy towards the intelligentsia. If opposition was suspected, the authorities resorted to repression. In 1921, many representatives of the intelligentsia were arrested in connection with the Petrograd Combat Organization case. Among them there were few scientific and creative intellectuals. By decision of the Petrograd Cheka, 61 of those arrested, including the prominent Russian poet N.S. Gumilyov, were shot. At the same time, remaining in the position of historicism, it should be noted that many of them opposed the Soviet regime, involving in public and other organizations, including military and combat organizations, all those who did not accept the new system.

The Bolshevik Party is heading towards the formation of its own socialist intelligentsia, devoted to the regime and serving it faithfully. New universities and institutes are opening. The first workers' faculties (workers' faculties) were created at higher educational institutions. The school education system also underwent radical reform. It ensured continuity of education, from preschool institutions to universities. A program to eliminate illiteracy was proclaimed.

In 1923, the voluntary society “Down with Illiteracy” was established, headed by the chairman of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee M.I. Kalinin. By the end of the 1920s, about 40 percent of the population could read and write (versus 27 percent in 1913), and a decade later the figure was 80 percent.

During the years of the NEP, the literary and artistic life of Soviet Russia was distinguished by its diversity and abundance of various creative groups and movements. In Moscow alone there were over 30 of them.

The NEP made it much easier for the USSR to break through the economic blockade, enter international markets, and gain diplomatic recognition.

In just 5 years - from 1921 to 1926. the index of industrial production increased more than 3 times, agricultural production increased 2 times and exceeded the level of 1913 by 18 percent. But even after the end of the recovery period, economic growth continued at a rapid pace: in 1927, 1928. the increase in industrial production was 13 and 19 percent, respectively. In general, for the period 1921-1928. the average annual growth rate of national income was 18 percent.

Monetary reform played an important role in the restoration of the national economy and its further development. At the beginning of 1924, the Soviet government stopped issuing unstable banknotes. Instead, a gold-backed chervonets was introduced into circulation. This contributed to the stabilization of the Soviet ruble and the strengthening of the country's financial system.

An important point during the years of the new economic policy was that impressive economic successes were achieved on the basis of fundamentally new social relations, hitherto unknown to history. The private sector emerged in industry and commerce; some state-owned enterprises were denationalized, others were leased out: private individuals were allowed to create their own industrial enterprises with no more than 20 employees (later this “ceiling” was raised). Among the factories rented by private owners there were those that employed 200-300 people, and in general the private sector during the NEP period accounted for from 1/5 to 1/4 of industrial output and 40-80 percent of retail trade. A number of enterprises were leased to foreign firms in the form of concessions. In 1926-1927, there were 117 existing agreements of this kind. They covered enterprises that employed 18 thousand people and produced just over one percent of industrial output.

In industry, key positions were occupied by state trusts, in the credit and financial sphere - by state and cooperative banks. The state put pressure on producers, forced them to find internal reserves for increasing production, to mobilize efforts to increase production efficiency, which alone could now ensure an increase in profits.

NEP Russia, whether it wanted it or not, created the basis of socialism. NEP is both a strategy and tactics of the Bolsheviks. “From NEP Russia,” said V.I. Lenin, “Russia will be socialist.” At the same time, V.I. Lenin demanded that we reconsider our entire point of view on socialism. The driving force of the NEP should be the working people, the alliance of the working class and the peasantry. The taxes paid by the Nepmen made it possible to expand the socialist sector. New plants, factories, and enterprises were built. In 1928 industrial production in a number of important indicators it exceeded the pre-war level. Since 1929, the country has become a huge construction site.

NEP meant the economic competition of socialism with capitalism. But this was an unusual competition. It took place in the form of a fierce struggle of capitalist elements against socialist forms of economy. The struggle was not for life, but for death, according to the principle of “who will win.” The Soviet state had everything necessary to win the fight against capitalism: political power, commanding heights in the economy, natural resources. There was only one thing missing - the ability to run a household and trade culturally. Even in the first days of Soviet power, V.I. Lenin said: “We, the Bolshevik Party, convinced Russia. We won Russia - from the rich for the poor, from the exploiters for the working people. We must now govern Russia.” The matter of management turned out to be extremely difficult. This was also evident during the years of the New Economic Policy.

The priority of politics over economics, proclaimed by the Bolsheviks in the process of social development, introduced disruptions into the mechanisms of the NEP. During the NEP period, many crisis situations arose in the country. They were caused by both objective and subjective reasons.

First crisis in economics arose in 1923. It went down in history as a sales crisis. 100 million peasants who received economic freedom filled the city market with cheap agricultural products. To stimulate labor productivity in industry (5 million workers), the state artificially inflates prices for industrial goods. By the fall of 1923, the price difference was more than 30 percent. This phenomenon, at the instigation of L. Trotsky, began to be called “scissors” of prices.

The crisis threatened the “link” between city and countryside and was aggravated by social conflicts. Workers' strikes began in a number of industrial centers. The fact is that the loans that enterprises previously received from the state were closed. There was no way to pay the workers. The problem was complicated by rising unemployment. From January 1922 to September 1923, the number of unemployed increased from 680 thousand to 1 million 60 thousand.

At the end of 1923 - beginning of 1924, prices for industrial goods were reduced by an average of more than 25 percent, and in light industry serving the mass consumer - by 30-45 percent. At the same time, prices for agricultural goods were increased almost 2 times. Much work has been done to improve state and cooperative trade. In May 1924, the People's Commissariat of Domestic and Foreign Trade was created. 30-year-old A.I. Mikoyan, the youngest People's Commissar of the USSR, was appointed to this post.

The economic crisis at this time is closely intertwined with the intensification of the struggle for power within the party due to the illness of the leader, V.I. Lenin. The fate of the country was influenced by internal party discussions that covered a wide range of issues: about worker and party democracy, bureaucracy and the apparatus, about the style and methods of leadership.

Second crisis arose in 1925. It brought new economic problems and difficulties. If during the recovery period the country immediately received a return in the form of agricultural and industrial goods, then during the construction of new and expansion of old enterprises, the return came after 3-5 years, and the construction paid off even longer. The country still received few goods, and wages had to be paid to workers regularly. Where can I get money backed by goods? They can be “pumped out of the village by raising prices for manufactured goods, or they can be printed further. But raising prices for manufactured goods did not mean getting more food from the village. The peasantry simply did not buy these goods, leading a subsistence economy; His incentive to sell bread became less and less. This threatened to reduce the export of bread and the import of equipment, which, in turn, in turn, hampered the construction of new and expansion of old industries.

In 1925-1926 got out of difficulties due to foreign currency reserves and allowing state sales of alcohol. However, there was little prospect of the situation improving. In addition, in just one year, unemployment in the country, due to agrarian overpopulation, increased by a thousand people and amounted to . 1 million 300 thousand.

Third crisis NEP was associated with industrialization and collectivization. This policy required expansion planned starts in the economy, an active attack on the capitalist elements of the city and countryside. Practical steps to implement this party line led to the completion of the reconstruction of the administrative-command system.

Collapsing NEP

Until recently, scientists disagreed regarding the end of the NEP. Some believed that by the mid-30s the tasks set for the new economic policy, were resolved. The New Economic Policy “ended in the second half of the 1930s. victory of socialism. Nowadays, the beginning of the NEP restrictions dates back to 1924 (after the death of V.I. Lenin). V.P. Danilov, one of the most authoritative researchers of the agrarian history of Russia, believes that 1928 was the time of transition to the frontal scrapping of the NEP, and in 1929 it was finished. Modern historians A.S. Barsenkov and A.I. Vdovin, the authors of the textbook “History of Russia 1917-2004,” connect the end of the NEP with the beginning of the first five-year plan.

History shows that the assumption of multi-structure and the determination of the place of each of these structures in the socio-economic development of the country occurred in the context of intense struggle for power between several party factions. In the end, the struggle ended in victory for the Stalinist group. By 1928-1929 she mastered all the heights of the party and state leadership and pursued an openly anti-NEP line.

The NEP was never officially cancelled, but in 1928 it began to wind down. What did this mean?

In the public sector, planned principles of economic management were introduced, the private sector was closed, and in agriculture, a course was taken to eliminate the kulaks as a class. The collapse of the NEP was facilitated by internal and external factors.

Domestic:

Private entrepreneurs have strengthened economically, both in the city and in the countryside; The restrictions on profits introduced by the Soviet government reached their maximum. The experience of socio-political development shows: whoever has a lot of money wants power. Private owners needed power to remove restrictions on making profits and to increase them;

The party's policy of collectivization in the countryside aroused resistance from the kulaks;

Industrialization required an influx of labor, which only the countryside could provide;

The peasantry demanded the abolition of the foreign trade monopoly, claiming access to the world market, and refused to feed the city under conditions of low purchase prices for agricultural products, primarily grain;

In the country, dissatisfaction with the everyday behavior of the “Nepmen” was becoming more and more acute among the general population, who staged revelries and various entertainments in full view.

External:

The aggressiveness of capitalist states against the USSR increased. The very fact of the existence of the Soviet state and its successes aroused the furious hatred of the imperialists. International reaction aimed to disrupt the industrialization that had begun in the USSR at any cost and to create a united front of capitalist powers for anti-Soviet military intervention. An active role in anti-Soviet politics during this period belonged to the British imperialists. It is enough to note that W. Churchill, an outstanding politician of that time, repeatedly noted that we did not leave Soviet Russia out of our attention for a single day, and constantly directed efforts to destroy, at any cost, the communist regime. In February 1927, an attack was organized on the Soviet plenipotentiary mission in London and Beijing, and the plenipotentiary representative in Poland P.L. was killed. Voikova;

The Kuomintang government of China in 1927 suspended diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union and closed all Soviet diplomatic missions.

In 1929, emergency measures to limit the free sale of bread were legalized. Priority sale of grain under government obligations is established. Already in the second half of 1929, partial expropriation of the kulaks began. The year 1929 was essentially decisive in the rejection of the NEP. The year 1929 went down in the history of the USSR as the “Year of the Great Turning Point.”

In the early 30s, there was an almost complete displacement of private capital from various sectors of the economy. The share of private enterprises in industry in 1928 was 18%, in agriculture - 97%, in retail trade - 24%, and by 1933 - 0.5%, 20% and zero, respectively.