Poetic syntax. Figures of speech

Poetic syntax is a system special means constructing speech that enhances its figurative expressiveness.

Of particular importance for identifying specifics artistic speech has a study of stylistic figures.

To the reception group non-standard connection of words syntactic unities include ellipse, anacoluthus, sylleps, alogism, amphiboly, and Gendiadis And ennalaga.

To the number of figures with unusual arrangement of parts syntactic constructions include different kinds parallelism And inversions.

To a group of figures marking unusual intonation composition text or its individual parts are different types syntactic repetition, and tautology, annomination And gradation, polysyndeton And asyndeton.

Ellipsis - linguistic term, omission in a phrase of a word that is easily implied. E. is a phenomenon widespread in everyday and poetic speech. Examples of E. in Russian poetry:

Not here (it was). The sea is not on fire.

(I. Krylov)

Anacoluthon- intactic inconsistency of sentence members, not noticed by the author or intentionally allowed to give the phrase a characteristic sharpness (for example, in everyday speech or in the speech of an excited person). However, the incorrect construction of the anacoluth phrase does not obscure the meaning, which is observed with amphiboly.

Having fervently prayed to God, shouted hurray at the Lyceum, Forgive me, brothers, I’m on my way, And it’s time for you to go to bed.

(A. Pushkin)

Here, between the first and second couplets, the words (“I say”) are missing, the second couplet is not put in quotation marks, like direct speech. A. of these lines is that participial phrases the first two lines are attached without an intermediary to the speech contained in the second couplet.

Silleps- a stylistic turn in which:

1) The subject is in the plural, and the predicate is a verb in the singular imperative mood, for example:

Those who are in need are arrogant, they lie in the dust, And for those who are higher, flattery is woven like lace.

(A. Griboyedov)

2) The subject is singular, and the predicate is plural:

My heart and I have never lived to see May, And in the life I have lived, there is only the hundredth April.

(V. Mayakovsky)

3) With two subjects, the predicate is singular:

This dawn, this spring, is so incomprehensible, but so clear.

4) The subject is a third person pronoun, and the predicate is a verb in imperative mood(second person):

She doesn't notice him, No matter how he fights, even if he dies.

(A. Pushkin, “Eugene Onegin”)

5) The subject is the first person pronoun, and the predicate is in the imperative mood (second person):

Or again, no matter how much I ask, There is nothing for you forever.

(S. Yesenin)

6) The subject and predicate are in the plural, and the complement dependent on them is in the singular:

She took familiar sheets of paper and looked at them wonderfully, like souls looking from above at the body they had abandoned.

(F. Tyutchev)

7) A turn of phrase will also be sylleptic when in a phrase the subject and predicate are placed in the first case in the singular, and then in the adjacent phrase in the plural, for example:

... The dead are buried in the ground; the sick are hidden in dugouts; The working people gathered in a tight crowd at the office... They scratched their heads tightly: Everyone owes a contractor a stay, Absentee days have become a penny!

(N. Nekrasov)

Alogism- a stylistic device close to an oxymoron; a deliberate violation of logical connections in a literary work in order to emphasize the internal inconsistency of a given position (dramatic or comic).

Amphiboly- ambiguity of expression resulting from a number of stylistic reasons.

1) Structural ambiguity in the construction of a sentence, most often ambiguity when the subject is in nominative case it is difficult to distinguish from the direct object in the accusative case, i.e., simply put, it is unknown - “who is whom”:

Brega Aragva and Kura We saw Russian tents.

(A. Pushkin)

2) Unsuccessful enjambement with a sharp grammatical inversion, in other words, an unsuccessful transfer of part of a phrase from one line to another in violation of the syntactic word order:

And a proud mind will not defeat Love with cold words.

(K. Batyushkov)

Pushkin remarked about these poems: “The meaning comes out: in cold words of love; a comma won't help."

3) The syntactic construction of a phrase is too complex or confusing in the presence of a sharp grammatical inversion and in the absence of precise punctuation:

And he bequeathed, dying, that His yearning bones would be carried to the south, And by death - restless guests alien to this land.

(A. Pushkin, “Gypsies”)

Gendiadis- a figure of speech that expresses one concept with two lexical units: for example. scream and cry, you greedy beef.

Enallaga is a rhetorical figure consisting of shifting a word or phrase by transferring its relationship from one defined to another. A type of metonymy, the transfer of a definition (epithet) to a word adjacent to the one being defined.

F.I. Tyutchev:

But for me your gaze is a blessing;

Like the key to life, in the depths of your soul

Your gaze lives and will live in me:

She needs him like heaven and breath.

The word “her” refers to “soul depth”, and not to the soul, and it turns out that “gaze” is needed by “soul depth”, i.e. the soul, as it begins to possess the property of depth, akin to the deep gaze that comes from the depths of another soul.

Parallelism- a compositional technique that emphasizes the structural connection of two (usually) or three elements of style in a work of art; the connection between these elements is that they are located in parallel in two or three adjacent phrases, poems, stanzas, due to which their commonality is revealed. Modern poetics have established the following types of P.

Chiasmus– a stylistic figure, which consists in the fact that in two adjacent sentences (or phrases) built on syntactic parallelism, the second sentence (or combination) is constructed in the reverse sequence of members. In other words, X. is a cross arrangement of parallel members in two adjacent sentences of the same syntactic form.

Our automedons are our fighters, our troikas are tireless.

(A. Pushkin)

... The Spanish grandee, like a thief, Waits for the night and is afraid of the moon.

(A. Pushkin)

Is there really no one more unhappy than me, and no one more guilty than him?

(M. Lermontov)

Here Pushkin's exile began and Lermontov's exile ended.

(A. Akhmatova)

Isocolon– stylistic figure of parallel arrangement of parts of speech in adjacent sentences:

He listens with his accustomed ear

Whistling.

He smears with one spirit

Sheet.

(A. Pushkin)

Inversion- violation of the generally accepted grammatical sequence of speech; rearrangement of parts of a phrase, giving it special expressiveness; an unusual sequence of words in a sentence.

Replays- stylistic features inherent in poetry and thereby distinguishing it from prose, as an opposing stylistic category. The system of poetic repetitions includes: metric elements - foot, verse, tactometric period, stanza, anacruse and epicruse; euphonic elements - anaphora and epiphora, rhymes, assonances, dissonances, refrain; various parallelisms.

Repetition- a figure consisting of the repetition of words, expressions, song or poetic lines in order to attract special attention to them.

Every house is alien to me, every temple is not empty, And yet everything is the same and everything is one... M. Tsvetaeva

Polyptoton– repetition of one word in different case forms while maintaining its meaning:

“But the man / Sent the man to the Anchar with an imperious gaze...” (A.S. Pushkin, “Anchar”).

Antanaclasis– a stylistic figure, a repetition of the same word in a different sense.

“...the wife is alone in the absence of her husband...” – Pushkin

Anaphora- unity of command; repetition of a word or group of words at the beginning of several phrases or stanzas.

I love you, Peter’s creation, I love your strict, slender appearance... A.S. Pushkin.

Epiphora- a figure opposite to anaphora, repetition of the same elements at the end of adjacent segments of speech (words, lines, stanzas, phrases):

Baby, we are all a little bit of a horse, Each of us is a horse in our own way. V.V. Mayakovsky

Refrain- a compositional technique of repeating a verse or a series of verses at the end of a stanza (verse). Many folk songs are structured this way.

Ring- a compositional and stylistic device consisting of repetition at the end of a poetic line (stanza or entire work) initial words or individual sounds.

There were discordant sounds of the bells.

(M. Lermontov)

Simploca- a figure of syntactic parallelism in adjacent verses, which a) have the same beginning and end with a different middle and b) on the contrary, have different beginning and end with the same middle.

Examples of S. of the first type are more often found in folk poetry:

There was a birch tree in the field, and a curly birch tree standing in the field.

Pleonasm- verbosity, unnecessary qualifying words in a phrase. These are the P. that we use at every step: I dreamed about underwear, came back, snub nose, ran, saw with my own eyes, etc. Examples of P. from poets.

Gradation- a stylistic figure consisting in the consistent intensification or, conversely, weakening of comparisons, images, epithets, metaphors and other expressive means of artistic speech. There are two types of G. - menopause (ascent) and anti-climax (descent).

Increasing gradation:

The fry on the bipod is maple, the horns on the bipod are damask, the horn on the bipod is silver, and the horn on the bipod is red and gold. An epic about Volga and Mikula.

Descending gradation:

Fly! less fly! disintegrated into a grain of sand. N.V.Gogol

Polysindeton(multi-conjunction) - such a construction of a phrase in which all or almost all homogeneous members of the sentence are connected to each other by the same conjunction (usually the conjunction “and”), while usually in this case only the last two homogeneous members of the sentence are connected. With the help of M., the purposefulness and unity of what is being enumerated is emphasized.

Oh! Summer is red! I would love you, If it weren’t for the heat, the dust, the mosquitoes, and the flies...

(Pushkin)

Asyndeton or asyndeton- a stylistic device in which there are no (omitted) conjunctions connecting words and sentences in phrases, as a result of which speech becomes more concise and compact. B. is the opposite of polysyndeton, which is used much more often. Examples B.:

Swede, Russian stabs, chops, cuts, drumming, clicks, grinding.

(A. Pushkin)

Rhetorical figures- a term of old Russian poetics (rhetoric, or rhetoric) - stylistic turns, the purpose of which is to enhance the expressiveness of speech. In the past, rhetoric was the science of oratory; it arose in Ancient Greece(school of Pythagoras). In Russia, the rules of literary stylistics in its broadest sense were described in “Rhetoric” by M. Lomonosov, who considered the use of R. f. sign high style. K R. f. included such stylistic phenomena as antithesis, hyperbole, appeal, exclamation, astheism, gradation, prosopopoeia, irony, simile, silence, etc.

Currently the name R. f. Only three style phenomena related to intonation have been preserved:

1) A rhetorical question that does not require an answer, but has a lyrical-emotional meaning:

2) Rhetorical exclamation, which plays the same role of enhancing emotional perception:

3) Rhetorical appeal designed for the same effect, especially in cases where interrogative intonation is combined with exclamation; this form of R. f. most often found in poetry.

Artistic speech, its specificity. Poetic syntax and poetic figures language.

Classifying f., the Roman theorist Quintilian outlined four ways of creating them:

1) addition of components, i.e. different types of repetitions (anaphora, anticlimax, climax, polysyndeton, simploca, epistrophe, epiphora);

2) subtraction of components: asyndeton, zeugma, ellipse;

3) rearrangement of components: inversion, chiasmus, etc.;

Adding components

REPEAT - 1) one of the basic principles of organizing poetic speech, carried out at all its structural levels: phonetic, lexical, syntactic, rhythmic; 2) a concept that unites a significant part of syntactic and stylistic figures, called by ancient rhetoric Per adiectionen (addition). It includes amplification, anastrophe, anaphora, anti-climax, epistrophe, epiphora, climax, pleonasm, polysyndeton, simploca, tautology, etc. P. is of exceptional importance in folk poetry.

REFRAIN (French refrain from Latin refrengere - to break, break) - compositional repetition, verbatim or with minor changes, regular repetition in a poetic work of a word, expression, line or stanza in permanent places text (mostly at the end). It can be the bearer of a leitmotif, be associated with the emotional dominant of the poem, etc. Genetically, R. arose from the chorus, with which it is sometimes identified.

ANAPHOR (Greek anaphere - elevation) - unity of beginning, lexical-syntactic figure, repetition of words or phrases at the beginning of adjacent syntactic or rhythmic units. In a broad sense - repetition at the beginning of adjacent units of any level of text (see: Sound anaphora). The opposite figure to A. is epiphora.

EPIPHOR (Greek epiphora - repetition, from epi - after + phoros - bearing) - a lexical-syntactic figure opposite to anaphora, repetition of a word or phrase at the end of adjacent - syntactic or versification - units of text. The combination of anaphora and E. creates one of the variations of simploki.

SYMPLOKA (Greek symploke - plexus) - lexical-syntactic figure, combination of anaphora and epiphora - repetition of initial and final words in the syntactic units of poetic lines or stanzas. Sometimes, as a second option, S. is called repetition of words in the middle of a poetic line.

Black eyes, passionate eyes!

The eyes are burning and beautiful!

How I love you] How I fear you!

You know, I saw you at an unkind hour!

(E. Grebenka)

POLYSYNDETON, or MULTI-UNION (Greek polysyndeton - multi-connected) - a syntactic figure, an excessive, excessive repetition of a union. Contributes to the creation of speech solemnity and coherence of syntactic units. It is a characteristic stylistic feature of the Old and New Testaments and can be used to stylize the living speech of uncultured characters.

a) Oh, summer is red! I would love you

If only it weren't for the heat, the dust, the mosquitoes, and the flies.

(A. Pushkin)

CLIMAX (Greek klimax - ladder) - a stylistic figure, a type of gradation, the arrangement of words or expressions in accordance with the increase in their semantic and/or emotional meaning. It often plays the role of a compositional figure, for example, the technique of folklore tripling in Russian fairy tales, in particular in “Sivka-Burka”, the increase in the desires of the old woman in Pushkin’s “The Tale of the Fisherman and the Fish”, etc.

Examples: lexical K.

Approaches, rapprochements, combustions, -

The azure silence does not accept...

It rolls in from afar.

First, with the thunder of a horse train

Along the pavement. The hum of a draft.

Then the fall of heavy barrels from the cart.

ANTI-CLIMAX (tren, anti - against + klimax - ladder) - a stylistic figure, a type of gradation, arrangement of words or expressions in order of their decreasing meaning. Unlike menopause, it is used quite rarely in poetry. In a broad sense - the compositional order of the semantic phases of a work in descending order.

And if you left for someone else

Or was he just somewhere unknown?

It was enough for me that your

The cloak hung on a nail.

When, our fleeting guest,

You rushed off, looking for a new destiny,

It was enough for me that the nail

Left after the cloak.

The passage of days, the rustle of years, -

Fog, wind and rain...

And in the house there is an event - nothing worse:

A nail was pulled out of the wall!

Fog, and wind, and the sound of rain...

The passage of days, the rustle of years...

It was enough for me that from the nail

There was a small trace left.

When did the nail mark disappear?

Under the old painter's brush, -

I was content with the fact that

The nail was visible - yesterday.

(N. Matveeva)

Subtracting Components

ASINDETON, non-union (Greek asyndeton - unrelated) - a syntactic figure, the absence of necessary conjunctions (for example, with homogeneous members of a sentence). Used to express static phenomena or events, as well as psychological tension.

ELLIPS, ELLIPSIS (Greek elleipsis - omission, loss) - a syntactic figure, an omission of a word or phrase restored by the speech context. Being syntactically incomplete construction, E. violates normative grammatical connections between members of a sentence while maintaining the general semantics of the statement. As a reflection of the general focus of speech on economy, E. is characteristic of colloquial speech(usually the easily implied, supporting parts of the statement are ellipsed, rather than the members of the sentence that nuance its meaning - subject, predicate, object). In literary text it is mainly used to convey physical or psychological excitement.

Either you love me -

and then everything doesn’t matter. And snow

It falls upward, dissolving into the sky-high distance.

Or... [...] Here follows a dash about duty, freedom and gift -

And it remains - to love for two, omitting the details

Heavy flights along the sky in the direction of spring...

(P. Besprozvannaya)

ZEVGMA (Greek zeugma - copula) - syntactic figure, subordination of a number of homogeneous minor members sentences to one, logically uniting them to the main member of the sentence (mainly the verbal predicate).

Gratitude

For everything, for everything I thank you:

For the secret torment of passions,

For the bitterness of tears, the poison of a kiss,

For the revenge of enemies and slander of friends;

For the heat of the soul, wasted in the desert,

For everything I was deceived in life...

Just arrange it so that from now on you

It didn't take me long to thank him.

(M. Lermontov)

BREAK - a stylistic figure, interrupted or incoherent speech. Usually O. indicates the exhaustion of speech reflection, the agitation of the subject of speaking, etc. Most often it is indicated by an ellipsis.

I did not yet know the rolling stream,

From what heights does he need to fall...

And get ready to take the leap!

(S. Marshak)

SILENCE, or APOSIOPESIS (Greek aposiopesis - silence) is a stylistic figure, an expressed concealment of thought. Unlike a break, U. creates the effect of understatement; it contains a hint of the author’s conscious reluctance or indecisiveness to express his thoughts in a speech volume corresponding to his content due to various psychological motivations (hostility, shyness, fear, etc.), thereby it initiates the reader to demand semantic subtext.

I don't regret anything, I don't regret anything, I don't regret anything,

There are no boundaries over my heart,

So why do I suddenly go crazy with just one thought?

That never, never again...

My God, never!..

(A. Galich)

ALLUSION (Latin alludere - to play with someone, joke, refer) - a stylistic figure, an allusion to certain circumstances, a person, an image, etc. with a focus on the reader's memory of them. According to the source of origin, they distinguish between mythological (Augean stables), biblical (the Flood), historical (Hannibal's Oath), political and journalistic (the Black Hundred), and literary.

literary

You're just playing around,

And already from the deck - jump! -

Not a seven, not an ace, not a three.

Damned Queen of Spades!

(A. Galich)

Rearranging components.

TRANSFER, SINAPHIA (Greek sinaphia - contact), or ENJAMBEMAN (French enjambement from enjamber - to step over, jump over) - a syntactic figure, an expressive discrepancy between the syntactic division of poetic speech and its metric division. There are transfers of syllables and even letters. It is used for the author’s emphasis on a word or phrase, which brings P. closer to inversion and other figures of speech accentuation. Widely used in spoken poetry, as well as in blank verse. When pronouncing P., the final pause in the verses must be preserved.

Shining, the clouds pass by

Across the blue sky. The hill is steep

Illuminated by the autumn sun. River

Runs down the rocks with speed.

(M. Lermontov)

PARTELLATION (Latin pars - part) is a syntactic figure, the division of a single statement into a number of isolated words or phrases. The main methods of such segmentation are auxiliary parts of speech (prepositions, conjunctions), as well as interjections; in writing, P. is often indicated by punctuation marks, and when pronounced, by intonation. P. is used primarily for stylistic purposes - to convey speech emotion, to accentuate each word in a sentence, etc. P. of words is also found.

a) Oh, how big he is in the field!

He is cunning and quick and firm in battle;

But he trembled as he stretched out only his hand

God-rati-on towards him with a bayonet.

(G. Derzhavin)

b) That in response to my love

You lowered your eyelids -

O life! oh forest! oh sunshine!

O youth! oh hopes!

(A.K. Tolstoy)

c) Distance: miles, miles...

We were arranged, seated,

To behave quietly,

At two different ends of the earth.

(M. Tsvetaeva)

d) I should surround her with a blockade of rhymes,

get lost, now turning pale, now blushing,

but a woman! me! thanks!

for being me! man! be gentle with her!

(E. Yevtushenko)

INVERSION (lat. inversio - rearrangement, turning over) - syntactic figure, violation normative order following the members of the sentence. Relocation of words or phrases ensures their logical and emotional markings, and more broadly, weakens the automaticity of text perception. The most common variation of I. is the castling of the subject-noun and adjective-determiner, which have an increased ability to express the author’s assessment and the author’s modality.

I dreamed of an azure, clear morning,

I dreamed of the vast expanse of my homeland,

The sky is ruddy, the field is dewy,

My irrevocable freshness and youth...

(K. Sluchevsky)

SYNTACTIC PARALLELISM (Greek parallelos - walking side by side) is a lexical-syntactic figure, an identical arrangement of similar members of a sentence in adjacent syntactic or rhythmic segments. Often coincides with psychological parallelism. Ancient rhetoric distinguished speech: by the number of commensurate speech segments (colons) included in it - dicolon, tricolon, etc.; by parallelism of sentence members (isocolon), by structural similarity/dissimilarity of columns (anthopodosis/chiasmus), by consonance (homeotelevton) or dissonance of the endings of columns, by similarity (homeoptoton) or dissimilarity of case endings of columns, etc.

What are you, white birch,

There is no wind, but are you making noise?

What, zealous heart,

There is no grief, but you are in pain?

(Folk song)

Crazy nights, sleepless nights,

Speeches are incoherent, eyes are tired...

Nights illuminated by the last fire,

Autumn's dead flowers are belated!

(A. Apukhtin)

CHIASM (Greek chiasmos from the letter “X” - xi - crosswise arrangement) is a syntactic figure covering two adjacent sentences, phrases, as well as poetic lines in which the same type of sentence members are located in relation to each other in the reverse order ( principle of mirror image).

X. with syntactic parallelism

To a ripe ear - a daring sickle,

For an adult girl - a young groom!

(Ya. Nekrasov)

ANTITHESIS (Greek contrapositum - opposition) is a stylistic figure of bringing together two opposing images, concepts, thoughts. In oratory and artistic creativity, articulation is carried out through the collision of words (antonyms), phrases, sentence segments, and verbal micro-images that are similar in formal terms, but opposite in meaning.

You are rich, I am very poor;

You are a prose writer, I am a poet;

You are blush like the color of poppies; I am like death, skinny and pale.

(A. Pushkin)

There are two misfortunes in Russia:

Below is the power of darkness,

And above is the darkness of power.

(V. Gilyarovsky)

“Happiness is in effort,” says youth.

“Happiness is in peace,” says death.

“I will overcome everything,” says youth.

“Yes, but it will all end,” says death.

(V. Rozanov)

Poetic liberties.

SOLECISM (or Greek Soloi - colony cities in Asia Minor, whose inhabitants distorted the Greek language) is a grammatically incorrect use of the word. Most often it is explained by the stylization of vernacular or the absence of the morphological form proposed by the author, which he needs to solve a specific stylistic problem. In ancient rhetoric, incorrectly constructed phrases were called S.

I'll leave without asking anything

Because mine pulled out lot,

I didn't think this month was beautiful

So beautiful and disturbing in the sky.

(I. Annensky)

The destiny of things: to rush somewhere into the distance.

Yesterday, in the evening, they gave me a shawl -

in the morning the shawl gets cold and bored,

she can't bear to hug shoulder other.

(B. Akhmadulina)

AMPHIBOLIA (Greek amphibolos - deceptive, ambiguous) - semantic ambiguity of the image.

My long path is empty and smooth...

Only in black villages

The endless is getting sadder,

Like rain, a slanting fence.

(I. Annensky)

ANAKOLUTH (Greek anakoluthos - inconsistent) - a speech figure, syntactic inconsistency of sentence members in a complete statement. Normal for oral speech the phenomenon of A. in a literary text can be a reproduction of a conversational style, or a method of emotional expressiveness, or a consequence of the author's inattention (author's deafness). The terminological synonym for A. is hyperbaton (Greek - transition), denoting a change in its syntactic order during speech, most often the separation of two connected words.

Nature hasn't woken up yet,

But through dwindling sleep

She heard spring

And she involuntarily smiled.

An equally significant area of study of expressive means is poetic syntax. The study of poetic syntax consists of analyzing the functions of each of the artistic techniques of selection and subsequent grouping of lexical elements into single syntactic constructions. If when studying the vocabulary of a literary text, words act as the analyzed units, then when studying syntax - sentences and phrases. If, during the study of vocabulary, facts of deviation from literary norm when selecting words, as well as facts of transfer of word meanings (a word with figurative meaning, i.e., a trope, manifests itself only in context, only during semantic interaction with another word), then the study of syntax requires not only a typological consideration of syntactic unities and grammatical connections of words in a sentence, but also to identify facts of adjustment or even change in the meaning of the whole phrases with a semantic relationship between its parts (which usually occurs as a result of the writer’s use of so-called figures).

"But what can we say about our writers who, considering it base to simply explain the most ordinary things, think to enliven children's prose with additions and sluggish metaphors? These people will never say friendship without adding: this sacred feeling, whose noble flame, etc. It should say: early in the morning - and they write: as soon as the first rays of the rising sun illuminated the eastern edges of the azure sky - oh, how new and fresh all this is, is it better only because it is longer?<...>Precision and brevity are the first virtues of prose. It requires thoughts and thoughts - without them brilliant expressions serve no purpose. Poems are a different matter..." ("On Russian Prose")

Consequently, the “brilliant expressions” that the poet wrote about - namely, lexical “beauties” and the variety of rhetorical means, in general types of syntactic constructions - are not a necessary phenomenon in prose, but possible. And in poetry it is common, because the actual aesthetic function of a poetic text always significantly overshadows the informative function. This is proven by examples from the works of Pushkin himself. Pushkin the prose writer is syntactically brief:

“Finally, something began to turn black to the side. Vladimir turned there. As he approached, he saw a grove. Thank God, he thought, it’s close now.” ("Blizzard")

On the contrary, Pushkin the poet is often verbose, constructing long phrases with a series of periphrastic turns:

The philosopher is playful and drinks, The happy sloth of Parnassus, The pampered favorite is chariting, The confidant of the dear aonides, Why did the singer of joy fall silent on the golden-stringed harp? Have you, young dreamer, finally parted with Phoebus?

It should be clarified that lexical “beauty” and syntactic “length” are necessary in poetry only when they are semantically or compositionally motivated. Verbosity in poetry may be unjustified. And in prose, lexico-syntactic minimalism is equally unjustified if it is raised to an absolute degree:

“The donkey put on a lion’s skin, and everyone thought it was a lion. The people and the cattle ran. The wind blew, the skin opened, and the donkey became visible. The people came running: they beat the donkey.” ("Donkey in a Lion's Skin")

Sparing phrases give this finished work the appearance of a preliminary plot plan. Selection of elliptical-type designs (“and everyone thought it was a lion”), savings meaningful words, leading to grammatical violations (“the people and the cattle ran”), and finally, the economy of function words (“the people came running: they beat the donkey”) determined the excessive schematism of the plot of this parable, and therefore weakened its aesthetic impact.

The other extreme is the overcomplication of constructions, the use of polynomial sentences with different types logical and grammatical connections, with many ways of distribution.

In the field of Russian language research, there is no established idea of what maximum length a Russian phrase can reach. The author's desire for maximum detail when describing actions and mental states leads to violations of the logical connection of parts of the sentence (“she fell into despair, and a state of despair began to come over her”).

The study of poetic syntax also involves assessing the facts of the correspondence of the methods used in the author’s phrases grammatical connection norms of national literary style. Here we can draw a parallel with the different style passive vocabulary How significant part poetic dictionary. In the sphere of syntax, as in the sphere of vocabulary, barbarisms, archaisms, dialectisms, etc. are possible, because these two spheres are interconnected: according to B.V. Tomashevsky, “each lexical environment has its own specific syntactic turns.”

In Russian literature, the most common syntactic barbarisms, archaisms, and vernaculars. Barbarism in syntax occurs if a phrase is constructed according to the rules of a foreign language. In prose, syntactic barbarisms are more often identified as speech errors: “Approaching this station and looking at nature through the window, my hat flew off” in A.P. Chekhov’s story “The Book of Complaints” - this gallicism is so obvious that it gives the reader a feeling of comedy . In Russian poetry, syntactical barbarisms were sometimes used as signs of high style. For example, in Pushkin’s ballad “Once upon a time there lived a poor knight...” the line “He had one vision...” is an example of such barbarism: the connective “he had a vision” appears instead of “he had a vision.” Here we also encounter syntactic archaism with the traditional function of increasing stylistic height: “There was no prayer to the Father, nor to the Son, / Nor to the Holy Spirit forever / Never happened to a paladin...” (it should be: “neither the Father nor the Son”). Syntactic vernaculars, as a rule, are present in epic and dramatic works in the speech of the characters for a realistic reflection of the individual speech style, for the self-characterization of the heroes. For this purpose, Chekhov resorted to using vernacular language: “Your dad told me that he is a court councilor, but now it turns out that he is only a titular one” (“Before the Wedding”), “Which Turkins are you talking about? This is about the ones that your daughter plays on the pianos? ("Ionych").

Of particular importance for identifying the specifics of artistic speech is the study of stylistic figures (they are also called rhetorical - in relation to the private scientific discipline within which the theory of tropes and figures was first developed; syntactic - in relation to that side of the poetic text for which their characterization is required description).

1. Unusual logical or grammatical connection of elements of syntactic structures.

2. Unusual relative arrangement of words in a phrase or phrases in a text, as well as elements that are part of different (adjacent) syntactic and rhythmic-syntactic structures (verses, columns), but have grammatical similarity.

3. Unusual ways of intonation marking of text using syntactic means.

Taking into account the dominance of a particular factor, we will highlight the corresponding groups of figures. TO group of techniques for non-standard connection of words into syntactic unities include ellipse, anacoluth, sylleps, alogism, amphiboly (figures characterized by an unusual grammatical connection), as well as catachresis, oxymoron, hendiadis, enallag (figures with an unusual semantic connection of elements).

1. One of the most common syntactic devices not only in fiction, but also in everyday speech is ellipse(Greek elleipsis - abandonment). This is an imitation of breaking a grammatical connection, which consists in omitting a word or a series of words in a sentence, in which the meaning of the missing members is easily restored from the general speech context. Elliptical speech in a literary text gives the impression of authenticity, because in life situation In conversation, the ellipse is one of the main means of composing phrases: when exchanging remarks, it allows you to skip previously spoken words. Consequently, in colloquial speech ellipses are assigned purely practical function: the speaker conveys information to the interlocutor to the required extent, using a minimum vocabulary.

2.Both in everyday life and in literature speech error recognized anacoluthon(Greek anakoluthos - inconsistent) - incorrect use of grammatical forms in coordination and control: “The smell of shag and some sour cabbage soup felt from there made life in this place almost unbearable” (A.F. Pisemsky, “Senile Sin”). However, its use can be justified in cases where the writer gives expression to the character’s speech: “Stop, brothers, stop! You’re not sitting like that!” (in Krylov's fable "Quartet").

3.If anacoluth is more often seen as a mistake than as an artistic device, and silleps and alogism- more often by technique than by mistake, then amphiboly(Greek amphibolia) is always perceived in two ways. Duality is in its very nature, since amphiboly is the syntactic indistinguishability of the subject and direct object, expressed by nouns in the same grammatical forms. “The sensitive sail strains the hearing...” in Mandelstam’s poem of the same name - a mistake or a technique? It can be understood as follows: “Sensitive hearing, if its owner desires to catch the rustle of the wind in the sails magically acts on the sail, causing it to tense up,” or like this: “A wind-blown (i.e., tense) sail attracts attention, and a person strains his ears.” Amphiboly is justified only when it turns out to be compositionally significant. Thus, in miniature by D. Kharms "Chest" the hero tests the possibility of the existence of life after death by self-suffocation in a locked chest. The ending for the reader, as the author planned, is unclear: either the hero did not suffocate, or he suffocated and was resurrected, - since the hero ambiguously summarizes: “So, life has defeated death by the unknown way for me."

4. An unusual semantic connection between parts of a phrase or sentence is created catachresis And oxymoron(Greek oxymoron - witty-stupid). In both cases there is a logical contradiction between the members of a single structure. Catachresis arises as a result of the use of an erased metaphor or metonymy and, within the framework of “natural” speech, is assessed as an error: “sea voyage” is the contradiction between “sail on the sea” and “walk on land”, “oral prescription” - between “orally” and “ in writing", "Soviet champagne" - between " Soviet Union" and "Champagne". An oxymoron, on the contrary, is a planned consequence of the use of a fresh metaphor and even in everyday speech is perceived as an exquisite figurative device. "Mom! Your son is beautifully sick!" (V. Mayakovsky, "Cloud in Pants") - here "sick" is a metaphorical replacement for "in love."

5. Among the rare and therefore especially notable figures in Russian literature is Gendiadis(from the Greek hen dia dyoin - one through two), in which compound adjectives are divided into their original constituent parts: “road melancholy, iron” (A. Blok, “On the Railroad”). Here the word “railroad” was split, as a result of which three words came into interaction - and the verse acquired additional meaning.

6. Words in a column or verse receive a special semantic connection when the writer uses enallagu(Greek enallage - movement) - transferring the definition to a word adjacent to the defined one. Thus, in the line “Through the meat, fat trenches...” from N. Zabolotsky’s poem “Wedding,” the definition “fat” became a vivid epithet after being transferred from “meat” to “trenches.” Enallaga is a sign of verbose poetic speech. The use of this figure in an elliptical construction leads to a disastrous result: the verse “A familiar corpse lay in that valley...” in Lermontov’s ballad “The Dream” is an example of an unforeseen logical error. The combination “familiar corpse” was supposed to mean “the corpse of a familiar [person],” but for the reader it actually means: “This person has long been known to the heroine precisely as a corpse.”

The writer's use of syntactic figures leaves an imprint of individuality on his author's style. By the middle of the twentieth century, by the time the concept of “creative individuality” had significantly depreciated, the study of figures ceased to be relevant.

The general nature of the writer’s creativity leaves a certain stamp on his poetic syntax, that is, on his manner of constructing phrases and sentences. It is in poetic syntax that the conditioning of the syntactic structure of poetic speech by the general nature of the writer’s creative talent is manifested.

Poetic figures of language are associated with the special role played by individual lexical resources and figurative means of language.

Rhetorical exclamations, appeals, questions created by the author to focus readers' attention on the phenomenon or problem about which we're talking about. Thus, they should draw attention to them, and not demand an answer (“Oh field, field, who strewn you with dead bones?” “Do you know the Ukrainian night?”, “Do you like theater?”, “Oh Rus'! Raspberry field...").

Repetitions: anaphora, epiphora, junction. They belong to figures of poetic speech and are syntactic constructions based on the repetition of individual words that carry the main semantic load.

Among the repetitions stand out anaphora, that is, repetition of initial words or phrases in sentences, poems or stanzas (“I loved you” - A.S. Pushkin;

I swear by the first day of creation,

I swear on his last day,

I swear by the shame of crime,

And eternal truth triumph. - M.Yu. Lermontov).

Epiphora is a repetition of final words or phrases in sentences or stanzas - “The master will come” N.A. Nekrasova.

Joint- a rhetorical figure in which a word or expression is repeated at the end of one phrase and at the beginning of the second. Most often found in folklore:

He fell on cold snow

It's like a pine tree on the cold snow,

Like a pine tree in a damp forest... - (M.Yu. Lermontov).

Oh spring, without end and without edge,

A dream without end and without edge... - (A.A. Blok).

Gain represents the arrangement of words and expressions according to the principle of their increasing strength: “I spoke, convinced, demanded, ordered.” Authors require this figure of poetic speech for greater strength and expressiveness when conveying the image of an object, thought, feeling: “I knew him in love tenderly, passionately, madly, boldly, modestly...” - (I.S. Turgenev).

Default- a rhetorical device based on the omission of individual words or phrases in speech (most often this is used to emphasize the excitement or unpreparedness of speech). - “There are such moments, such feelings... You can only point to them... and pass by” - (I.S. Turgenev).

Parallelism- is a rhetorical device - a detailed comparison of two or more phenomena, given in similar syntactic structures. -

What is foggy, clear dawn,

Did it fall to the ground with dew?

What are you thinking, red maiden,

Are your eyes sparkling with tears? (A.N. Koltsov)

Parcellation- division of a single syntactic structure of a sentence for the purpose of a more emotional, vivid perception of it by the reader - “A child needs to be taught to feel. Beauty. People. All living things around.”

Antithesis(contrast, contrast) is a rhetorical device in which the disclosure of contradictions between phenomena is usually carried out using a number of antonymic words and expressions. -

Black evening, white snow... - (A.A. Blok).

My body is crumbling into dust,

I command thunder with my mind.

I am a king - I am a slave, I am a worm - I am a god! (A.N. Radishchev).

Inversion- unusual word order in a sentence. Despite the fact that in the Russian language there is no fixed word order once and for all, there is nevertheless a familiar order. For example, a definition comes before the word being defined. Then Lermontov’s “A lonely sail turns white in the blue fog of the sea” seems unusual and poetically sublime in comparison with the traditional: “A lonely sail turns white in the blue fog of the sea.” Or “The longed-for moment has come: My long-term work is finished” - A.S. Pushkin.

Unions can also serve to give expressiveness to speech. So, asyndeton usually used to convey the swiftness of action when depicting pictures or sensations: “Cannonballs are rolling, bullets are whistling, Cold bayonets are hanging...,” or “Lightlights are flashing by, Pharmacies, fashion stores... Lions at the gates...” - A. WITH. Pushkin.

Multi-Union usually creates the impression of separate speech, emphasizing the significance of each word separated by a conjunction:

Oh! Summer is red! I would love you

If only it weren't for the heat, the dust, the mosquitoes, and the flies. - A.S. Pushkin.

And the cloak, and the arrow, and the crafty dagger -

The lord is protected by the years. - M.Yu. Lermontov.

The combination of non-union and multi-union- also a means of emotional expressiveness for the author:

The beat of drums, screams, grinding,

The thunder of guns, stomping, neighing, groaning,

And death and hell on all sides. - A.S. Pushkin.

Literary study syntactic features work of art, like the analysis of vocabulary (“poetic dictionary”), is intended to identify aesthetic the function of syntactic devices, their role in the formation of style in its different volumes (author, genre, national, etc.).

As in the study of vocabulary, the facts of deviations from the literary norm, knowledge of which is provided by linguistics, are significant here. In the sphere of syntax, as in the sphere of vocabulary, barbarisms, archaisms, dialectisms, etc. are possible, because these two spheres are interconnected: according to B.V. Tomashevsky, “each lexical environment has its own specific syntactic turns” (Literary Theory. Poetics , p.73). In Russian literature, the most common syntactic barbarisms, archaisms, and vernaculars.

Barbarism in syntax occurs if a phrase is constructed according to the rules of a foreign language. In prose, syntactic barbarisms are more often recognized as speech errors: "Approaching to this station and looking to nature through the window, I have hat flew off" in A.P. Chekhov’s story “The Book of Complaints” - this gallicism is so obvious that a comic effect arises. In Russian poetry, syntactical barbarisms were sometimes used as signs of high style. For example, in the ballad by A. S. Pushkin “Once upon a time there lived a poor knight...” the line “He had one vision...” is an example of such barbarism: the connective “he had a vision" appears instead of the combination “him there was a vision." Here we also encounter syntactic archaism with the traditional function of increasing stylistic height: “There is no prayer Father, nor Son, / Neither to the Holy Spirit forever/Has never happened to a paladin...” (it should have been: “neither the Father nor the Son”). Syntactic vernaculars, as a rule, are present in epic and dramatic works in the language of the characters for a realistic reflection of the individual speech style, for the self-characterization of the heroes. For this purpose, Chekhov resorted to colloquialisms: “Your daddy talked Me, what one court councillor, but now it turns out one only just titular"(“Before the wedding”), “Which Turkins are you talking about? This is about those What does your daughter play the piano?” (“Ionych”).

When analyzing a literary text, it is necessary to pay attention to the author’s selection of types of syntactic constructions, because this selection can be dictated by the content of the work (motivated by the theme, determined by the task of verbal expression of the “points of view” of the characters, etc.).

There are some peculiarities in the perception of the syntax of a poetic work. In particular, in such works the length of a phrase is felt differently than in prose. Often, a poem of considerable length contains only a few sentences. However, the verse division of the text greatly facilitates its reading.

Of particular importance for identifying the specifics of artistic speech is the study stylistic figures(they are also called rhetorical– in relation to rhetoric, within the framework of which the theory of tropes and figures was first developed; syntactic – in relation to syntax as one of the speech aspects of any literary text).

The doctrine of figures was already taking shape at the time when the doctrine of style was taking shape - in the era of antiquity; developed and supplemented - in the Middle Ages; finally, it finally turned into a permanent section of normative “poetics” (textbooks on poetics) - in modern times. Tropes and figures were the subject of a single doctrine: if “trope” is a change in the “natural” meaning of a word, then “figure” is a change in the “natural” order of words in a syntactic structure (rearrangement of words, omission of necessary ones or the use of “extra” ones - from the point of view of “ natural" speech - lexical elements). In everyday speech, the detected “figures” are often considered as speech errors, but within artistic speech the same figures are usually distinguished as effective means of poetic syntax.

Currently, there are many classifications of stylistic figures, which are based on one or another - quantitative or qualitative - differentiating feature: the verbal composition of a phrase, the logical or psychological relationship of its parts, etc. In this case, when listing particularly significant figures, three factors are taken into account : 1) unusual logical or grammatical connection of elements of syntactic structures; 2) an unusual relative arrangement of words in a phrase or phrases in a text, as well as elements that are part of different (adjacent) syntactic and rhythmic-syntactic structures (verses, columns), but have grammatical similarity; 3) unusual ways intonation marking of text using syntactic means. It should be borne in mind that within the same segment of speech not only different paths, but also different figures can be combined.

To the reception group non-standard connection of wordsinto syntactic unities relate ellipse, anacoluthus, sylleps, alogism, amphiboly(figures characterized by an unusual grammatical connection), as well as Gendiadis And enallaga(figures with an unusual semantic connection of elements).

One of the most common syntactic devices not only in fiction, but also in everyday speech is ellipse (gr. ellepsis - abandonment). This is an imitation of breaking a grammatical connection, which consists in omitting a word or a series of words in a sentence, in which the meaning of the missing members is easily restored from the general speech context. This technique is most often used in epic and dramatic works when constructing character dialogues: with its help, the authors give lifelike scenes of communication between their characters.

Elliptical speech in a literary text gives the impression of authenticity, because in the life situation of a conversation, the ellipse is one of the main means of composing phrases: when exchanging remarks, it allows you to skip previously spoken words. In colloquial speech, ellipses have an exclusively practical function: the speaker conveys information to the interlocutor in the required volume, using a minimum vocabulary. Meanwhile, using the ellipse as means of expression in artistic speech it can also be motivated by the author’s focus on the psychologism of the narrative. Often ellipses also indicate a structural change in states or actions. This is, for example, their function in the fifth chapter of “Eugene Onegin”, in the narrative about Tatyana Larina’s dream: “Tatyana Oh! and he roars...", "Tatyana into the forest, the bear behind her..."

Both in everyday life and in literature, a speech error is recognized anacoluthon (gr. anakoluthos - inconsistent) - incorrect use of grammatical forms in coordination and control. The use of anacoluth can be justified in cases where the writer emphasizes the expression of the character’s speech: "Wait, brothers, stop! You’re not sitting like that!” (in Krylov’s fable “Quartet”).

On the contrary, it turns out in the literature that it was a deliberately applied technique rather than an accidental mistake. sylleps (gr. syllpsis - conjugation, capture), which consists in the syntactic design of semantically heterogeneous elements in the form of a number of homogeneous members of the sentence: “This sex carried a napkin under his arm and a lot of acne on his cheeks” (I.S. Turgenev, “Strange History »).

Alogism (gr. A- negative particle, logismos - mind) is a syntactic correlation of semantically incompatible parts of a phrase with the help of its auxiliary elements expressing a certain type of logical connection (cause-and-effect, gender-species relationships, etc.): “The car drives fast, but the cook cooks better” (E. Ionesco, “The Bald Singer”).

If anacoluthus is more often seen as an error than an artistic device, and sylleps and alogism are more often seen as a device than an error, then amphiboly (gr. amphibolia - ambiguity, vagueness) is always perceived in two ways. Duality is in its very nature, since amphiboly is the syntactic indistinguishability of the subject and direct object, expressed by nouns in similar grammatical forms. (" Hearing sensitive sail annoying..." in the poem of the same name by O.E. Mandelstam).

Among the rare figures in Russian literature and therefore especially notable figures is Gendiadis (from gr. hen dia dyen – one through two), in which complex adjectives are divided into their original component parts: “melancholy road, railway"(A. A. Blok, “On the Railroad”). Here the word “railroad” was split, as a result of which three words came into interaction - and the verse acquired additional meaning.

Words in a verse receive a special semantic connection when the writer uses enallagu (gr. enallage - movement) – transfer of a definition to a word adjacent to the one being defined. Thus, in the line “Through the fat trenches of meat...” from N. A. Zabolotsky’s poem “Wedding,” the definition of “fat” became a vivid epithet after being transferred from “meat” to “trenches.”

To the number of figures with unusual arrangement of parts syntactic constructions include various types parallelism And inversions.

Parallelism(from the gr. parallelos - walking next to) suggests compositional correlation adjacent syntactic segments of text (lines in a poetic work, sentences in a text, parts in a sentence). Types of parallelism are usually distinguished on the basis of some characteristic possessed by the first of the related constructions, which serves as a model for the author when creating the second.

Thus, by projecting the word order of one syntactic segment onto another, parallelism is distinguished straight(“The animal Dog is sleeping, / The bird Sparrow is dozing” (N.A. Zabolotsky “The signs of the Zodiac are fading...”) and converted(“The waves are playing, the wind is whistling” (“Sail” by M.Yu. Lermontov). Inverted parallelism is also called chiasmus(gr. chiasmos – x-shaped, cruciform).

When comparing the number of words in paired syntactic segments, parallelism is also identified full And incomplete. Full parallelism (its common name is isocolon; gr. isokolon – equivalence) - in the two-word lines of F. I. Tyutchev “The amphoras are emptied, / The baskets are overturned” (the poem “The feast is over, the choirs have fallen silent...”), incomplete - in his unequal lines “Pause, pause, evening day, / Extended, extended, charm" (poem "Last Love").

The same group of figures includes such a common technique as inversion (Latin inversio - rearrangement). It manifests itself in the arrangement of words in a phrase or sentence in an order different from the natural one. In Russian, for example, the order “subject + predicate”, “definition + qualified word” or “preposition” is natural. + noun in case form", and unnatural - the reverse order.

Inverted words can be placed in a phrase in different ways. At contact inversion, the contiguity of words is preserved (“Like a tragedian in the province Shakespeare's drama..." in "Marburg" B.L. Pasternak), with distant – wedged between them are other words “Submissive Perun old man alone..." in “Song of the Prophetic Oleg” by A.S. Pushkin). In both cases, an unusual position single word influences its intonation. In inverted constructions, words sound more expressive and weighty.

To a group of figures marking unusual intonation composition text or its individual parts, there are different types syntactic repetition, and tautology, annomination And gradation, polysyndeton And asyndeton.

There are two subgroups of techniques repeat. The first includes techniques for repeating individual parts within a sentence. With their help, authors usually emphasize a semantically tense place in a phrase, since any repetition is an intonation highlight. Like inversion, repeat can be contact (“It’s time, it’s time, horns are blowing..." in the poem by A.S. Pushkin "Count Nulin") or distant (“It’s time, my Friend, it's time! the heart asks for peace..." in Pushkin's poem of the same name).

Simple repetition is applied to different units of text - both to a word (as in the examples given) and to a phrase (“Evening bells, evening bells!” translated by I. Kozlov from T. Moore). The repetition of one word in different cases while maintaining its meaning has been recognized since ancient times as a special figure - polyptoton (gr. polyptoton – polycase): “But person person/ He sent me to the Anchar with an imperious look...” (Pushkin, “Anchar”). An equally ancient figure is antanaclasis(gr. aptanaclasis – reflection) - repetition of a word in its original grammatical form, but with a change in meaning. “The last eagle owl is broken and sawn apart. / And pinned with a stationery pin / Down to the autumn branch head, / Hanging and ponders head..."(A.V. Eremenko, “In dense metallurgical forests...”) - here the word “head” is used in a direct and then in a metonymic meaning.

The second subgroup includes repetition figures that extend not to a sentence, but to a larger part of the text (stanza, syntactic period), sometimes to the entire work. These types of repetition are distinguished by position in the text. So, anaphora(gr. apaphora – removal; Russian term – unity of command) – This is the joining of speech segments (columns, poetic lines) by repeating a word or phrase in the initial position: "This - cool filled whistle, / This- the clicking of crushed pieces of ice, / This is the night that freezes the leaf, / This is a duel between two nightingales” (B.L. Pasternak, “The Definition of Poetry”). Epiphora(gr. eriphora - additive ; Russian term – mono-ended), on the contrary, it connects the ends of speech series with lexical repetition: “Because they turned into a horse virtuous person(...); because they were exhausted virtuous person(...); because they are calling hypocritically a virtuous person; because they don't respect virtuous person"(Gogol, "Dead Souls", chapter 11). By projecting the principle of epiphora onto an integral poetic text, one can see its development in the phenomenon refrain(for example, in a classic French ballad).

Anadiplosis (gr. anadiplosis - doubling; Russian term - joint) – This is a contact repetition, connecting the end of a speech series with the beginning of the next one. This is how Blok’s poems “Oh, Spring” are connected without end and without edge - /Without end and without edge dream". Anaphora and epiphora often act in small lyrical genres as a structure-forming device. But anadiplosis can also acquire the function of a compositional core around which speech is built.

Opposite of Anadiplosis prosapodosis (gr. prosapodosis – addition; Russian term – ring, coverage), distant repetition, in which the initial element of a syntactic structure is reproduced at the end of the next one: "It's muddy sky, night cloudy..."("Demons" by A.S. Pushkin). Also, prosapodosis can cover a stanza (S.A. Yesenin’s poem “You are my Shagane, Shagane...” is built on circular repetitions) and even the entire text of the work (“Night. Street. Lantern. Pharmacy...” by A. Blok).

This subgroup also includes a complex figure formed by a combination of anaphora and epiphora within the same segment of text - simploc (gr. simploce - plexus): "I Don't want Falaleya,/ I I hate Falaleya, / I I don't give a damn Falaleya, / I I'll crush you Falaleya (...) I would rather love Asmodeus / than Falaleya!(F.M. Dostoevsky, “The village of Stepanchikovo and its inhabitants”, part 2, chapter 5).

When repeated, it is possible to reproduce not only the word as a single sign, but also the meaning separated from the sign. Tautology (gr. tauto – the same thing, logos – word), or pleonasm (gr. pleonasmos - surplus), is a figure, the use of which does not necessarily repeat a word, but necessarily duplicates the meaning of a lexical element. To do this, the authors select either synonymous words or periphrastic phrases. Thus, in A. Eremenko’s poem “Pokryshkin” the double tautology intonationally highlights the columns against the background of the general flow of speech "evil bullet bandit evil."

For the purpose of intonation highlighting of a semantically significant speech segment, they also use annomination (Latin anominatio – sub-condition) – contact repetition of cognate words: "I think I think his own..." in "The Railway" by N. A. Nekrasov.

Close to repetition figures gradation (lat. gradatio – change of degree), in which words grouped into a series of homogeneous members have a common semantic meaning (of a sign or action), but their arrangement expresses a consistent change in this meaning. The manifestation of a unifying feature can gradually strengthen or weaken: “I swear to heaven, undoubtedly what you beautiful, undeniably what you beautiful, truly(...) what you attractive"(“Love’s Labour’s Lost” by Shakespeare, translated by Yu. Korneev). In this phrase, next to “undoubtedly-indisputably-true” the strengthening of one attribute is presented, and next to “beautiful-beautiful-attractive” – the weakening of another.

In addition, to the group of funds intonation markings relate polysyndeton (gr. polysyndeton – multi-union) and asyndeton (gr. asyndeton - non-union). Like the gradation that both figures often accompany, they imply an emphatic emphasis on the corresponding part of the text in spoken speech. Polysyndeton is essentially not only a multi-conjunction (“And life, and tears, and love” in Pushkin), but also a multi-sentence (“About valor, about deeds, about glory” in Blok). Its function is to mark a logical sequence of actions (“Autumn” by Pushkin: "AND thoughts in my head are agitated in courage, / AND light rhymes run towards them, / AND fingers begging for the pen..."), or to encourage the reader to generalize, to perceive a number of details as a whole image ("I erected a monument to myself not made by hands..." A.S. Pushkin: specific "AND proud grandson of the Slavs, And Finn, And now wild / Tungus, And friend of the steppes Kalmyk" is formed when perceived into the generic "peoples of the Russian Empire"). With the help of asyndeton, either the simultaneity of actions is emphasized (“The Swede, the Russian stabs, chops, cuts...” in Pushkin’s “Poltava”), or the fragmentation of the phenomena of the depicted world (“Whisper, timid breathing, / The trill of a nightingale, / Silver and swaying / Sleepy stream" from Fet).

It should be noted that this classification does not include all traditionally identified figures of poetic speech. In addition to them, the most common figures are also the rhetorical question, appeal and exclamation.

The writer's use of syntactic figures leaves an imprint of individuality on his author's style. Currently, interest in the study of syntactic devices as means of artistic stylistics has increased significantly. The study of poetic syntax has received a new direction: modern science increasingly analyzes phenomena that are at the intersection of different aspects of a literary text, for example, rhythm and syntax, verse meter and syntax, vocabulary and syntax, etc.