Muscles and organs of the abdominal cavity. Human abdominal organs: location

The study of complex structure human body and the layout of the internal organs - this is the human anatomy. Discipline helps to understand the structure of our body, which is one of the most complex on the planet. All its parts perform strictly defined functions and all of them are interconnected. Modern anatomy is a science that distinguishes both what we observe visually and the structure of the human body hidden from the eyes.

What is human anatomy

This is the name of one of the sections of biology and morphology (along with cytology and histology), which studies the structure of the human body, its origin, formation, evolutionary development at a level above the cellular level. Anatomy (from the Greek Anatomia - incision, opening, dissection) studies how the external parts of the body look. It also describes the internal environment and the microscopic structure of organs.

The selection of human anatomy from the comparative anatomy of all living organisms is due to the presence of thinking. There are several main forms of this science:

1. Normal, or systematic. This section studies the body of the "normal" i.e. of a healthy person by tissues, organs, their systems.
2. Pathological. This is an applied scientific discipline that studies diseases.
3. Topographic, or surgical. It is so called because it has applied significance for surgery. Complements the descriptive human anatomy.

normal anatomy

Extensive material has led to the complexity of studying the anatomy of the structure of the human body. For this reason, it became necessary to artificially divide it into parts - organ systems. They are considered normal, or systematic, anatomy. She breaks down the complex into the simpler. Normal human anatomy studies the body in a healthy state. This is its difference from the pathological. Plastic anatomy studies appearance. It is used when depicting a human figure.

• topographic;
• typical;
• comparative;
• theoretical;
• age;
• X-ray anatomy.

Pathological human anatomy

This kind of science, along with physiology, studies the changes that occur with the human body in certain diseases. Anatomical studies are carried out microscopically, which helps to identify pathological physiological factors in tissues, organs, and their aggregates. The object in this case are the corpses of persons who died from various diseases.

The study of the anatomy of a living person is carried out using harmless methods. This discipline is mandatory in medical schools. Anatomical knowledge is divided into:

• general, reflecting methods of anatomical studies of pathological processes;
• private, describing the morphological manifestations of certain diseases, for example, tuberculosis, cirrhosis, rheumatism.

Topographic (surgical)

This kind of science has developed as a result of the need for practical medicine. Its creator is the doctor N.I. Pirogov. Scientific human anatomy studies the arrangement of elements relative to each other, the layered structure, the process of lymph flow, blood supply in a healthy body. This takes into account gender characteristics and changes associated with age anatomy.

The anatomical structure of a person

The functional elements of the human body are cells. Their accumulation forms the tissue that makes up all parts of the body. The latter are combined in the body into systems:

1. Digestive. It is considered the most difficult. The organs of the digestive system are responsible for the process of digestion of food.
2. Cardiovascular. The function of the circulatory system is to supply blood to all parts of the human body. This includes and lymphatic vessels.
3. Endocrine. Its function is to regulate the nervous and biological processes in the body.
4. Urogenital. In men and women, it has differences, provides reproductive and excretory functions.
5. Cover. Protects the insides from external influences.
6. Respiratory. Saturates the blood with oxygen, converts it into carbon dioxide.
7. Musculoskeletal. Responsible for the movement of a person, maintaining the body in a certain position.
8. Nervous. Includes the spinal cord and brain, which regulate all body functions.

The structure of human internal organs

The section of anatomy that studies the internal systems of a person is called splanchnology. These include respiratory, genitourinary and digestive. Each has characteristic anatomical and functional connections. They can be combined according to the general property of the exchange of substances between the external environment and man. In the evolution of the body, it is believed that the respiratory system buds from certain departments digestive tract.

organs of the respiratory system

They provide a continuous supply of oxygen to all organs, the removal of carbon dioxide formed from them. This system is divided into upper and lower airways. The first list includes:

1. Nose. Produces mucus that traps foreign particles when inhaled.
2. Sinuses. Air-filled cavities in the lower jaw, wedge-shaped, ethmoid, frontal bones.
3. Throat. It is divided into the nasopharynx (provides air flow), oropharynx (contains tonsils that have a protective function), laryngopharynx (serves as a passage for food).
4. Larynx. Does not allow food to enter the respiratory tract.

Another part of this system is the lower respiratory tract. They include organs chest cavity presented in the following small list:

1. Trachea. It starts after the larynx, stretches down to the chest. Responsible for air filtration.
2. Bronchi. Similar in structure to the trachea, they continue to purify the air.
3. Lungs. Located on either side of the heart in the chest. Each lung is responsible for the vital process of exchanging oxygen with carbon dioxide.

Human abdominal organs

The abdominal cavity has a complex structure. Its elements are located in the center, left and right. According to human anatomy, the main organs in the abdominal cavity are as follows:

1. Stomach. It is located on the left under the diaphragm. Responsible for the primary digestion of food, gives a signal of satiety.
2. The kidneys are located at the bottom of the peritoneum symmetrically. They perform a urinary function. The substance of the kidney is made up of nephrons.
3. Pancreas. Located just below the stomach. Produces enzymes for digestion.
4. Liver. It is located on the right under the diaphragm. Removes poisons, toxins, removes unnecessary elements.
5. Spleen. It is located behind the stomach, is responsible for immunity, provides hematopoiesis.
6. Intestines. Located in the lower abdomen, absorbs all the nutrients.
7. Appendix. It is an appendage of the caecum. Its function is protective.
8. Gallbladder. Located below the liver. Accumulates incoming bile.

genitourinary system

This includes the organs of the human pelvic cavity. There are significant differences between men and women in the structure of this part. They are in the bodies providing reproductive function. In general, a description of the structure of the pelvis includes information about:

1. Bladder. Accumulates urine before urination. It is located below in front of the pubic bone.
2. Genital organs of a woman. The uterus is under bladder, and the ovaries are slightly higher above it. They produce eggs that are responsible for reproduction.
3. Male genitals. The prostate gland is also located under the bladder, responsible for the production of secretory fluid. The testicles are located in the scrotum, they form sex cells and hormones.

Human endocrine organs

The system responsible for regulating the activity of the human body through hormones is the endocrine system. Science distinguishes two devices in it:

1. diffuse. Endocrine cells here are not concentrated in one place. Some functions are performed by the liver, kidneys, stomach, intestines and spleen.
2. Glandular. Includes thyroid, parathyroid glands, thymus, pituitary gland, adrenal glands.

Thyroid and parathyroid glands

The largest gland internal secretion is thyroid. It is located on the neck in front of the trachea, on its side walls. Partially, the gland is adjacent to the thyroid cartilage, consists of two lobes and an isthmus, necessary for their connection. The function of the thyroid gland is the production of hormones that promote growth, development, and regulate metabolism. Not far from it are the parathyroid glands, which have the following structural features:

1. Quantity. There are 4 of them in the body - 2 upper, 2 lower.
2. Place. They are located on the posterior surface of the lateral lobes of the thyroid gland.
3. Function. Responsible for the exchange of calcium and phosphorus (parathyroid hormone).

Anatomy of the thymus

The thymus, or thymus gland, is located behind the handle and part of the body of the sternum in the upper anterior region of the chest cavity. It consists of two lobes connected by loose connective tissue. The upper ends of the thymus are narrower, so they go beyond the chest cavity and reach the thyroid gland. In this organ, lymphocytes acquire properties that provide protective functions against cells alien to the body.

The structure and functions of the pituitary gland

A small gland of spherical or oval shape with a reddish tint is the pituitary gland. It is directly related to the brain. The pituitary gland has two lobes:

1. Front. It affects the growth and development of the whole body as a whole, stimulates the activity of the thyroid gland, adrenal cortex, and sex glands.
2. back. Responsible for strengthening the work of vascular smooth muscles, increases blood pressure, affects the reabsorption of water in the kidneys.

Adrenal glands, gonads and endocrine pancreas

The paired organ located above the upper end of the kidney in the retroperitoneal tissue is the adrenal gland. On the anterior surface, it has one or more furrows that serve as gates for outgoing veins and incoming arteries. Functions of the adrenal glands: production of adrenaline in the blood, neutralization of toxins in muscle cells. Other elements of the endocrine system:

1. Sex glands. The testicles contain interstitial cells responsible for the development of secondary sexual characteristics. The ovaries secrete folliculin, which regulates menstruation and affects the nervous state.
2. Endocrine part of the pancreas. It contains pancreatic islets, which secrete insulin and glucagon into the blood. This ensures the regulation of carbohydrate metabolism.

Musculoskeletal system

This system is a set of structures that provide support to parts of the body and help a person move in space. The whole apparatus is divided into two parts:

1. Bone-articular. From the point of view of mechanics, this is a system of levers, which, as a result of muscle contraction, transmit the effects of forces. This part is considered passive.
2. Muscular. The active part of the musculoskeletal system is muscles, ligaments, tendons, cartilaginous structures, synovial bags.

Anatomy of bones and joints

The skeleton is made up of bones and joints. Its functions are the perception of loads, the protection of soft tissues, the implementation of movements. Bone marrow cells produce new blood cells. Joints are the points of contact between bones, between bones and cartilage. The most common type is synovial. Bones develop as a child grows, providing support for the entire body. They make up the skeleton. It includes 206 individual bones, consisting of bone tissue and bone cells. All of them are located in the axial (80 pieces) and appendicular (126 pieces) skeleton.

Bone weight in an adult is about 17-18% of body weight. According to the description of the structures of the skeletal system, its main elements are:

1. Scull. Consists of 22 connected bones, excluding only lower jaw. The functions of the skeleton in this part: protecting the brain from damage, supporting the nose, eyes, mouth.
2. Spine. Formed by 26 vertebrae. The main functions of the spine: protective, depreciation, motor, support.
3. Rib cage. Includes sternum, 12 pairs of ribs. They protect the chest cavity.
4. Limbs. This includes the shoulders, hands, forearms, thigh bones, feet, and lower legs. Provides basic mobility.

The structure of the muscular skeleton

The muscle apparatus also studies human anatomy. There is even a special section - myology. The main function of the muscles is to provide a person with the ability to move. About 700 muscles are attached to the bones of the skeletal system. They make up about 50% of a person's body weight. The main types of muscles are as follows:

1. Visceral. They are located inside the organs, provide the movement of substances.
2. Cardiac. Located only in the heart, it is necessary for pumping blood through the human body.
3. Skeletal. This type of muscle tissue is controlled by a person consciously.

Organs of the human cardiovascular system

The cardiovascular system includes the heart, blood vessels and about 5 liters of transported blood. Their main function is to carry oxygen, hormones, nutrients and cellular waste. This system works only at the expense of the heart, which, remaining at rest, pumps about 5 liters of blood through the body every minute. It continues to work even at night, when most of the rest of the elements of the body are resting.

Anatomy of the heart

This organ has a muscular hollow structure. The blood in it is poured into the venous trunks, and then driven into the arterial system. The heart consists of 4 chambers: 2 ventricles, 2 atria. The left parts are the arterial heart, and the right parts are the venous. This division is based on the blood in the chambers. The heart in human anatomy is a pumping organ, since its function is to pump blood. There are only 2 circles of blood circulation in the body:

• small, or pulmonary, transporting venous blood;
• large, carrying oxygenated blood.

Vessels of the pulmonary circle

The pulmonary circulation carries blood from the right side of the heart towards the lungs. There it is filled with oxygen. This is the main function of the vessels of the pulmonary circle. Then the blood returns back, but already to the left half of the heart. Lung circuit support right atrium and the right ventricle - for it they are pumping chambers. This circle of blood circulation includes:

• right and left pulmonary arteries;
• their branches are arterioles, capillaries and precapillaries;
• venules and veins that merge into 4 pulmonary veins that flow into the left atrium.

Arteries and veins of the systemic circulation

The bodily, or large, circle of blood circulation in human anatomy is designed to deliver oxygen and nutrients to all tissues. Its function is the subsequent removal of carbon dioxide from them with metabolic products. The circle begins in the left ventricle - from the aorta, which carries arterial blood. It is further divided into:

1. arteries. They go to all the insides, except for the lungs and heart. Contains nutrients.
2. Arterioles. These are small arteries that carry blood to the capillaries.
3. capillaries. In them, the blood gives off nutrients with oxygen, and in return takes away carbon dioxide and metabolic products.
4. Venules. These are reverse vessels that provide the return of blood. Similar to arterioles.
5. Vienna. They merge into two large trunks - the superior and inferior vena cava, which flow into the right atrium.

Anatomy of the structure of the nervous system

sense organs, nervous tissue and cells, spinal cord and brain - that's what the nervous system consists of. Their combination provides control of the body and the interconnection of its parts. The central nervous system is the control center, consisting of the brain and spinal cord. It is responsible for evaluating the information coming from outside and making certain decisions by a person.

The location of organs in the human CNS

Human anatomy says that the main function of the central nervous system is the implementation of simple and complex reflexes. The following important bodies are responsible for them:

1. Brain. Located in the brain region of the skull. It consists of several sections and 4 communicating cavities - cerebral ventricles. performs the highest mental functions Keywords: consciousness, voluntary actions, memory, planning. In addition, it supports breathing, heart rate, digestion and blood pressure.
2. Spinal cord. Is in spinal canal, is a white strand. It has longitudinal grooves on the front and back surfaces, and the spinal canal in the center. The spinal cord consists of white (a conductor of nerve signals from the brain) and gray (creates reflexes to stimuli) matter.

Functioning of the peripheral nervous system

This includes elements of the nervous system outside the spinal cord and brain. This part is allocated conditionally. It includes the following:

1. Spinal nerves. Each person out of 31 couples. The posterior branches of the spinal nerves run between the transverse processes of the vertebrae. They innervate the back of the head, deep muscles of the back.
2. cranial nerves. There are 12 pairs. They innervate the organs of vision, hearing, smell, glands of the oral cavity, teeth and skin of the face.
3. Sensory receptors. These are specific cells that perceive the irritation of the external environment and convert it into nerve impulses.

Human anatomical atlas

The structure of the human body is described in detail in the anatomical atlas. The material in it shows the body as a whole, consisting of individual elements. Many encyclopedias were written by various medical scientists who studied the course of human anatomy. These collections contain visual layouts of the organs of each system. This makes it easier to see the relationship between them. In general, the anatomical atlas is a detailed internal structure person.

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15.1. BORDERS, AREAS AND SECTIONS OF THE ABDOMINAL

From above, the abdomen is limited by the costal arches, from below - by the iliac crests, inguinal ligaments and the upper edge of the pubic fusion. The lateral border of the abdomen runs along vertical lines connecting the ends of the XI ribs with the anterior superior spines (Fig. 15.1).

The abdomen is divided into three sections by two horizontal lines: the epigastrium (epigastrium), the womb (mesogastrium) and the hypogastrium (hypogastrium). The outer edges of the rectus abdominis go from top to bottom and divide each section into three areas.

It should be borne in mind that the boundaries of the abdominal cavity do not correspond to the boundaries of the anterior abdominal wall. The abdominal cavity is a space covered with intra-abdominal fascia, bounded from above by the diaphragm, from below - by the boundary line that separates the abdominal cavity from the pelvic cavity.

Rice. 15.1.The division of the abdomen into departments and regions:

1 - projection of the dome of the diaphragm;

2 - linea costarum; 3 - linea spmarum; a - epigastrium; b - womb; in - hypogastrium; I - the actual epigastric region; II and III - right and left hypochondria; V - umbilical region; IV and VI - right and left side areas; VIII - suprapubic region; VII and IX - ilioinguinal regions

15.2. ANTERELATERAL ABDOMINAL WALL

The anterolateral abdominal wall is a complex of soft tissues located within the boundaries of the abdomen and covering the abdominal cavity.

15.2.1. Projection of organs on the anterolateral abdominal wall

The liver (right lobe), part of the gallbladder, hepatic flexure of the colon, right adrenal gland, part of the right kidney are projected into the right hypochondrium (Fig. 15.2).

The left lobe of the liver, part of the gallbladder, part of the body and the pyloric part of the stomach, the upper half of the duodenum, the duodenal-jejunal junction (bend), the pancreas, parts of the right and left kidneys, the aorta with the celiac trunk, the celiac plexus, are projected into the epigastric region proper. a small section of the pericardium, inferior vena cava.

The bottom, cardia and part of the body of the stomach, spleen, tail of the pancreas, part of the left kidney and part of the left lobe of the liver are projected into the left hypochondrium.

The ascending colon, part of the ileum, part of the right kidney and the right ureter are projected into the right lateral region of the abdomen.

Part of the stomach (greater curvature), transverse colon, loops of the jejunum and ileum, part of the right kidney, aorta, and inferior vena cava are projected into the umbilical region.

The descending colon, loops are projected into the left lateral region of the abdomen jejunum, left ureter.

The caecum with the appendix and the terminal ileum are projected into the right ilio-inguinal region.

Loops of the jejunum and ileum are projected into the suprapubic region, the bladder is in a full state, part sigmoid colon(transition to a straight line).

The sigmoid colon and loops of the jejunum and ileum are projected into the left ilio-inguinal region.

The uterus normally does not protrude beyond the upper edge of the pubic symphysis, but during pregnancy, depending on the period, it can be projected into the suprapubic, umbilical or epigastric region.

Rice. 15.2.Projection of organs on the anterior abdominal wall (from: Zolotko Yu.L., 1967):

1 - anterior border of the pleura; 2 - sternum; 3 - esophagus; 4 - heart; 5 - left lobe of the liver; 6 - cardia of the stomach; 7 - the bottom of the stomach; 8 - intercostal space; 9 - XII rib; 10 - common bile duct; 11 - spleen; 12 - the body of the stomach; 13 - left bend of the colon; 14 - costal arch; 15 - duodenal-jejunal bend; 16 - jejunum; 17 - descending colon; 18 - sigmoid colon; 19 - wing of the ileum; 20 - anterior upper spine of the ileum; 21 - V lumbar vertebra; 22 - fallopian tube; 23 - ampulla of the rectum; 24 - vagina; 25 - uterus; 26 - rectum; 27 - appendix; 28 - ileum; 29 - caecum; 30 - the mouth of the ileocecal valve; 31 - ascending colon; 32 - duodenum;

33 - right bend of the colon; 34 - pyloric stomach; 35 - gallbladder; 36 - cystic duct; 37 - common hepatic duct; 38 - lobar hepatic ducts; 39 - liver; 40 - diaphragm; 41 - easy

15.2.2. Topography of layers and weaknesses of the anterolateral abdominal wall

Leatherthe area is mobile, elastic, which allows it to be used for plastic purposes in the plastic surgery of facial defects (the Filatov stem method). The hairline is well developed.

Subcutaneous adipose tissue divided by superficial fascia into two layers, the degree of its development may be different in different people. In the umbilical region, fiber is practically absent, along the white line it is poorly developed.

superficial fascia consists of two sheets - superficial and deep (Thompson's fascia). The deep leaf is much stronger and denser than the superficial one and is attached to the inguinal ligament.

own fascia covers the abdominal muscles and fuses with the inguinal ligament.

The most superficial external oblique muscle of the abdomen. It consists of two parts: muscular, located more laterally, and aponeurotic, lying anterior to the rectus abdominis muscle and participating in the formation of the rectus sheath. The lower edge of the aponeurosis thickens, turns down and inward and forms the inguinal ligament.

More deeply located internal oblique muscle of the abdomen. It also consists of a muscular and aponeurotic part, but the aponeurotic part has a more complex structure. The aponeurosis has a longitudinal fissure located about 2 cm below the navel (Douglas line, or arcuate). Above this line, the aponeurosis consists of two sheets, one of which is located anterior to the rectus abdominis muscle, and the other is posterior to it. Below the Douglas line, both sheets merge with each other and are located anterior to the rectus muscle (Fig. 15.4).

rectus abdominis located in the middle part of the abdomen. Its fibers are directed from top to bottom. The muscle is divided by 3-6 tendon bridges and lies in its own vagina, formed by aponeuroses of the internal and external oblique and transverse abdominal muscles. The anterior wall of the vagina is represented by an aponeurosis

external oblique and partially internal oblique abdominal muscles. It is loosely separated from the rectus muscle, but fuses with it in the area of ​​the tendon bridges. The posterior wall is formed due to the aponeurosis of the internal oblique (partially), transverse abdominal muscles and intra-abdominal fascia and does not grow together with the muscle anywhere, forming

Rice. 15.3.Layers of the anterolateral abdominal wall (from: Voilenko V.N. and others,

1965):

1 - rectus abdominis; 2 - external oblique muscle of the abdomen; 3 - jumper between the segments of the rectus muscle; 4 - aponeurosis of the external oblique muscle of the abdomen; 5 - pyramidal muscle; 6 - spermatic cord; 7 - ilio-inguinal nerve; 8 - anterior and lateral cutaneous branches of the iliac-hypogastric nerve; 9, 12 - anterior cutaneous branches of the intercostal nerves; 10 - lateral cutaneous branches of the intercostal nerves; 11 - anterior wall of the sheath of the rectus abdominis muscle

cellular space in which the upper and lower epigastric vessels pass. In this case, the corresponding veins in the navel are connected to each other and form a deep venous network. In some cases, the rectus abdominis is reinforced from below by the pyramidal muscle (Fig. 15.3).

Rice. 15.4.Deep blood vessels of the anterolateral abdominal wall (from: Voilenko V.N. et al., 1965):

I - superior epigastric artery and vein; 2, 13 - posterior wall of the sheath of the rectus abdominis muscle; 3 - intercostal arteries, veins and nerves; 4 - transverse abdominal muscle; 5 - iliac-hypogastric nerve; 6 - dagoobraznaya line; 7 - lower epigastric artery and vein; 8 - rectus abdominis; 9 - ilioinguinal nerve; 10 - internal oblique muscle of the abdomen;

II - aponeurosis of the internal oblique muscle of the abdomen; 12 - anterior wall of the sheath of the rectus abdominis muscle

transverse abdominis muscle lies deeper than all the others. It also consists of muscular and aponeurotic parts. Its fibers are located transversely, while the aponeurotic part is much wider than the muscular one, as a result of which there are small slit-like spaces at the place of their transition. The transition of the muscular part into the tendon has the form of a semicircular line, called the lunate, or Spiegel's line.

According to the Douglas line, the aponeurosis of the transverse abdominis muscle also splits: above this line it passes under the rectus abdominis muscle and participates in the formation of the posterior wall of the vagina of the rectus muscle, and below the line it participates in the formation of the anterior wall of the vagina.

Under the transverse muscle is the intra-abdominal fascia, which in the area under consideration is called transverse (along the muscle on which it lies) (Fig. 15.4).

It should be noted that the aponeuroses of the left and right oblique and transverse abdominal muscles along middle line fuse with each other other, forming a white line of the abdomen. Considering the relative paucity of blood vessels, the presence of a connection between all layers and sufficient strength, it is the white line of the abdomen that is the site of the fastest surgical access for interventions on the internal organs of the abdomen.

On the inner surface of the abdominal wall, a number of folds and depressions (pits) can be identified.

Directly along the midline is located vertically the median umbilical fold, which is the remainder of the urinary duct of the fetus, subsequently overgrown. In an oblique direction from the navel to the lateral surfaces of the bladder, there are internal, or medial, right and left umbilical folds. They are remnants of obliterated umbilical arteries covered with peritoneum. Finally, from the navel to the middle of the inguinal ligament, lateral, or external, umbilical folds stretch, formed by the peritoneum covering the lower epigastric vessels.

Between these folds are the supravesical, medial inguinal and lateral inguinal fossae.

Under the concept of "weak spots of the abdominal wall" unite such parts of it that weakly restrain intra-abdominal pressure and, when it increases, can be places for hernias to exit.

These places include all the above fossae, the inguinal canal, the white line of the abdomen, the lunate and arcuate lines.

Rice. 15.5.Topography of the inner surface of the anterior-lateral abdominal wall:

1 - rectus abdominis; 2 - transverse fascia; 3 - median fold; 4 - internal umbilical fold; 5 - external umbilical fold; 6 - lateral inguinal fossa; 7 - medial inguinal fossa; 8 - supravesical fossa; 9 - femoral fossa; 10 - lacunar ligament; 11 - deep femoral ring; 12 - external iliac vein; 13 - outer iliac artery; 14 - spermatic cord, 15 - deep ring of the inguinal canal; 16 - lower epigastric vessels; 17 - umbilical artery; 18 - parietal peritoneum

15.2.3. Topography of the inguinal canal

The inguinal canal (canalis inguinalis) is located above the inguinal ligament and is a slit-like space between it and the broad abdominal muscles. In the inguinal canal, 4 walls are distinguished: anterior, upper, lower and posterior, and 2 openings: internal and external (Fig. 15.6).

Anterior wall of the inguinal canal is the aponeurosis of the external oblique muscle of the abdomen, which thickens in its lower part and tucks backwards, forming the inguinal ligament. The latter is inferior wall of the inguinal canal. In this area, the edges of the internal oblique and transverse muscles are located slightly above the inguinal ligament, and thus the upper wall of the inguinal canal is formed. Back wall represented by the transverse fascia.

outside hole, or superficial inguinal ring (annulus inguinalis superficialis), formed by two legs of the aponeurosis of the external oblique muscle of the abdomen, which diverge to the sides and attach to the pubic symphysis and pubic tubercle. At the same time, from the outside, the legs are strengthened by the so-called interpeduncular ligament, and from the inside, by a bent ligament.

inner hole, or deep inguinal ring (annulus inguinalis profundus), is a defect in the transverse fascia, located at the level of the lateral inguinal fossa.

The contents of the inguinal canal in men are the ilioinguinal nerve, the genital branch of the femoral-genital nerve and the spermatic cord. The latter is a collection of anatomical formations connected by loose fiber and covered with a vaginal membrane and a muscle that lifts the testicle. In the spermatic cord behind the vas deferens with a. cremasterica and veins, anterior to them are the testicular artery and the pampiniform venous plexus.

The contents of the inguinal canal in women are the ilioinguinal nerve, the genital branch of the femoral-genital nerve, the vaginal process of the peritoneum and the round ligament of the uterus.

It should be borne in mind that the inguinal canal is the exit point of two types of hernias: direct and oblique. In the event that the course of the hernial canal corresponds to the location of the inguinal canal, i.e. the mouth of the hernial sac is located in the lateral fossa, the hernia is called oblique. If the hernia comes out in the area of ​​the medial fossa, then it is called direct. It is also possible the formation of congenital hernias of the inguinal canal.

Rice. 15.6. inguinal canal:

1 - anterior wall of the inguinal canal (aponeurosis of the external oblique muscle of the abdomen); 2 - upper wall of the inguinal canal (lower edges of the internal oblique and transverse abdominal muscles; 3 - posterior wall of the inguinal canal (transverse fascia); 4 - lower wall of the inguinal canal (inguinal ligament); 5 - aponeurosis of the external oblique abdominal muscle; 6 - inguinal ligament ; 7 - internal oblique muscle of the abdomen; 8 - transverse abdominal muscle; 9 - transverse fascia; 10 - ilioinguinal nerve; 11 - genital branch of the femoral-genital nerve; 12 - spermatic cord; 13 - muscle that lifts the testicle; 14 - seed - efferent duct; 15 - external seminal fascia

15.2.4. Topography of blood vessels and nerves of the anterolateral abdominal wall

The blood vessels of the anterolateral abdominal wall are arranged in several layers. The branches of the femoral artery pass most superficially in the subcutaneous fatty tissue of the hypogastrium: external genital, superficial epigastric and superficial artery enveloping the ilium. Arteries accompany one or two veins of the same name. In the subcutaneous fatty tissue of the epigastrium, the thoracic vein (v. thoracoepigastrica) passes from top to bottom, which stretches to the umbilical region, where it merges with the superficial paraumbilical venous network. Thus, in the region of the navel, an anastomosis is formed between the system of the inferior vena cava (due to the superficial epigastric veins) and the superior vena cava (due to the thoracic vein).

Between the transverse and internal oblique muscles of the abdomen, there are intercostal arteries and veins belonging to 7-12 intercostal spaces.

Along the posterior wall of the sheath of the rectus abdominis muscle lie the inferior epigastric artery and vein (below the navel) and the superior epigastric vessels (above the navel). The former are branches of the external iliac arteries and veins, the latter are a direct continuation of the internal mammary arteries and veins. As a result of the connection of these veins in the navel, another anastomosis is formed between the system of the inferior vena cava (due to the inferior epigastric veins) and the superior vena cava (due to the superior epigastric veins).

In the umbilical region, from the inside, a round ligament of the liver is attached to the anterolateral abdominal wall, in the thickness of which there are paraumbilical veins that have a connection with the portal vein. As a result, so-called porto-caval anastomoses are formed in the umbilical region between the umbilical veins and the lower and superior epigastric veins (deep) and superficial epigastric veins (superficial). More clinical significance has a superficial anastomosis: with portal hypertension saphenous veins increase sharply in size, this symptom is called the "head of a jellyfish."

The innervation of the anterolateral abdominal wall is carried out by the lower 6 intercostal nerves. The trunks of the nerves are located between the transverse and internal oblique muscles, while the epigastrium is innervated by the 7th, 8th and 9th intercostal nerves, the stomach by 10th and 11th, the hypogastrium by the 12th intercostal nerve, which is called the hypochondrium.

15.3. DIAPHRAGM

The diaphragm is a domed septum that separates the chest cavity from the abdominal cavity. From the side of the chest cavity, it is covered with intrathoracic fascia and parietal pleura, from the side of the abdominal cavity - by intra-abdominal fascia and parietal peritoneum. Anatomical characteristic

Allocate tendon and muscle sections of the diaphragm. In the muscular section, three parts are distinguished according to the places of attachment of the diaphragm: sternal, costal and lumbar.

Rice. 15.7.Lower surface of the diaphragm:

1 - tendon part; 2 - sternal part; 3 - costal part; 4 - lumbar part; 5 - sternocostal triangle; 6 - lumbocostal triangle; 7 - opening of the inferior vena cava; 8 - esophageal opening; 9 - aortic opening; 10 - medial interpeduncular fissure; 11 - lateral interpeduncular fissure; 12 - aorta; 13 - esophagus; 14 - right vagus nerve; 15 - aorta; 16 - chest lymphatic duct; 17 - sympathetic trunk; 18 - unpaired vein; 19 - splanchnic nerves

Topography of apertures and diaphragm triangles

The sternocostal triangles are located in front between the sternum and costal parts, and the lumbocostal triangles are located behind. In these triangles, there are no muscle fibers and the sheets of the intra-abdominal and intra-thoracic fascia are in contact.

The lumbar part of the diaphragm forms three paired legs: medial, middle and lateral. The medial legs cross each other, as a result of which two openings are formed between them - the aortic (behind) and the esophageal (front). In this case, the muscle fibers surrounding the esophageal opening form the esophageal sphincter. The content of the remaining holes is shown in fig. 15.7.

15.4. OVERVIEW TOPOGRAPHY OF THE TOP FLOOR

ABDOMINAL CAVITY

The upper floor of the abdominal cavity is located from the diaphragm to the root of the mesentery of the transverse colon, the projection of which more or less coincides with the bicostal line.

Internal organs

In the upper floor of the abdominal cavity are the liver, gallbladder, stomach, spleen and part of the duodenum. Despite the fact that the pancreas lies in the retroperitoneal tissue, due to its topographical, clinical and functional proximity to the listed organs, it is also referred to as the organs of the upper floor of the abdominal cavity.

Peritoneal bags and ligaments

The peritoneum of the upper floor, covering the internal organs, forms three bags: hepatic, pregastric and omental. At the same time, depending on the degree of coverage by the peritoneum, intraperitoneally or intraperitoneally (on all sides), mesoperitoneally (on three sides) and retroperitoneally (on one side) located organs are isolated (Fig. 15.8).

The liver bag is limited medially by the falciform and round ligaments of the liver and consists of three sections. The suprahepatic region, or right subdiaphragmatic space, lies between the diaphragm and the liver, is the highest place in the abdominal cavity.

Rice. 15.8.Scheme of the sagittal cut of the abdomen:

1 - anterolateral abdominal wall; 2 - subphrenic space; 3 - liver; 4 - hepato-gastric ligament; 5 - subhepatic space; 6 - stomach; 7 - gastrocolic ligament; 8 - gland hole; 9 - pancreas; 10 - stuffing bag; 11 - mesentery of the transverse colon; 12 - transverse colon; thirteen - big omentum; 14 - parietal peritoneum; 15 - loops of the small intestine and the mesentery of the small intestine

cavities. Air accumulates in this space when the internal organs are perforated. In front, it passes into the prehepatic fissure, which lies between the liver and the anterolateral wall of the abdomen. The prehepatic fissure from below passes into the subhepatic space located between the visceral surface of the liver and the underlying organs - part of the duodenum and the hepatic flexure of the colon. On the lateral side, the subhepatic space communicates with the right lateral canal. In the posteromedial part of the subhepatic space, between the hepatoduodenal and hepatorenal ligaments, there is a slit-like gap - the omental, or Winslow, opening connecting the hepatic sac with the omental sac.

The stuffing bag occupies a rear-left position. Behind, it is limited by the parietal peritoneum, in front and laterally - by the stomach with its ligaments, medially - by the walls of the omental opening. This is a slit-like space that, apart from the omental opening, has no connection with the abdominal cavity. This fact explains the possibility of a long, asymptomatic course of an abscess located in the omental sac.

The pancreatic sac occupies an anterior-left position. Behind, it is limited by the stomach with its ligaments and partly by the spleen, in front - by the anterolateral wall of the abdomen. The upper part of the pancreatic sac is called the left subdiaphragmatic space. On the lateral side, the bag communicates with the left lateral canal.

Blood vessels

blood supplyorgans of the upper floor of the abdominal cavity (Fig. 15.9) is provided by the abdominal part of the descending aorta. At the level of the lower edge of the XII thoracic vertebrae, the celiac trunk departs from it, which almost immediately divides into its terminal branches: the left gastric, common hepatic and splenic arteries. The left gastric artery goes to the cardia of the stomach and then is located on the left half of the lesser curvature. The common hepatic artery gives off branches: to the duodenum - the gastroduodenal artery, to the stomach - the right gastric artery and then passes into its own hepatic artery, which supplies blood to the liver, gallbladder and bile ducts. The splenic artery runs almost horizontally to the left to the spleen, giving short branches to the stomach along the way.

Venous blood from the organs of the upper floor of the abdominal cavity flows into the portal vein (from all unpaired organs except the liver), which is directed to the portal of the liver, located in the hepatoduodenal ligament. Blood flows from the liver into the inferior vena cava.

Nerves and nerve plexuses

innervationthe upper floor of the abdominal cavity is carried out by the vagus nerves, the sympathetic trunk and celiac nerves. Along the entire course of the abdominal aorta is the abdominal aortic plexus, formed by sympathetic and parasympathetic branches. At the point of departure from the aorta of the celiac trunk, the celiac plexus is formed, which gives off branches,

Rice. 15.9.The upper floor of the abdominal cavity (from: Voilenko V.N. et al., 1965):

I - common hepatic artery; 2 - splenic artery; 3 - celiac trunk; 4 - left gastric artery and vein; 5 - spleen; 6 - stomach; 7 - left gastrocolic artery and vein; 8 - a large gland; 9 - right gastrocolic artery and vein; 10 - duodenum;

II - right gastric artery and vein; 12 - gastroduodenal artery and vein; 13 - common bile duct; 14 - inferior vena cava; 15 - portal vein; 16 - own hepatic artery; 17 - liver; 18 - gallbladder

spreading along with the branches of the celiac trunk. As a result, organ nerve plexuses (hepatic, splenic, renal) are formed near the organs, providing innervation of the corresponding organs. At the place of origin of the superior mesenteric artery is the superior mesenteric plexus, which is involved in the innervation of the stomach.

Groups of lymph nodes

lymphatic system the upper floor of the abdominal cavity is represented by lymphatic collectors that form the thoracic lymphatic duct, lymphatic vessels and nodes. It is possible to distinguish regional groups of lymph nodes that collect lymph from individual organs (right and left gastric, hepatic, splenic), and collectors that receive lymph from several organs. These include the celiac and aortic lymph nodes. From them, the lymph flows into the thoracic lymphatic duct, which is formed by the fusion of two lumbar lymphatic trunks.

15.5. CLINICAL ANATOMY OF THE STOMACH

Anatomical characteristic

The stomach is a hollow muscular organ in which the cardial part, fundus, body, and pyloric part are isolated. The wall of the stomach consists of 4 layers: mucous membrane, submucosa, muscular layer and peritoneum. The layers are interconnected in pairs, which allows them to be combined into cases: mucosubmucosal and serous-muscular (Fig. 15.10).

Topography of the stomach

Holotopia.The stomach is located in the left hypochondrium, partly in the epigastrium.

Skeletotopiastomach is extremely unstable and differs in the filled and emptied state. The entrance to the stomach is projected onto the point of connection with the sternum of the VI or VII costal cartilages. The pylorus is projected 2 cm to the right of the midline on level VIII ribs.

Syntopy.The anterior wall of the stomach is adjacent to the anterolateral abdominal wall. The greater curvature is in contact with the transverse

colon, small - with the left lobe of the liver. The back wall is in close contact with the pancreas and somewhat looser with the left kidney and adrenal gland.

Connective device. There are deep and superficial ligaments. Superficial ligaments are attached along the greater and lesser curvatures and are located in the frontal plane. These include the greater curvature of the gastroesophageal ligament, gastrodiaphragmatic ligament, gastrosplenic ligament, gastrocolic ligament. Along the lesser curvature are the hepatic-duodenal and hepatic-gastric ligaments, which, together with the gastro-phrenic ligament, are called the lesser omentum. Deep ligaments are attached to the back wall of the stomach. These are the gastro-pancreatic ligament and the pyloric-pancreatic ligament.

Rice. 15.10.Sections of the stomach and duodenum. Stomach: 1 - cardiac part; 2 - bottom; 3 - body; 4 - antral part; 5 - gatekeeper;

6 - gastroduodenal junction. Duodenum;

7 - upper horizontal part;

8 - descending part; 9 - lower horizontal part; 10 - ascending part

Blood supply and venous return

Blood supply.There are 5 sources of blood supply to the stomach. The right and left gastroepiploic arteries are located along the greater curvature, and the right and left gastric arteries are located along the lesser curvature. In addition, part of the cardia and the posterior wall of the body are powered by short gastric arteries (Fig. 15.11).

Venous bedThe stomach is divided into intraorganic and extraorganic parts. The intraorgan venous network is located in layers corresponding to the layers of the stomach wall. The extraorganic part basically corresponds to the arterial bed. Venous blood from the stomach

flows into the portal vein, but it should be remembered that in the region of the cardia there are anastomoses with the veins of the esophagus. Thus, a porto-caval venous anastomosis is formed in the region of the cardia of the stomach.

innervation

innervationThe stomach is carried out by branches of the vagus nerves (parasympathetic) and the celiac plexus.

Rice. 15.11.Arteries of the liver and stomach (from: Big Medical Encyclopedia. - T. 10. - 1959):

1 - cystic duct; 2 - common hepatic duct; 3 - own hepatic artery; 4 - gastroduodenal artery; 5 - common hepatic artery; 6 - lower phrenic artery; 7 - celiac trunk; 8 - posterior vagus nerve; 9 - left gastric artery; 10 - anterior vagus nerve; 11 - aorta; 12, 24 - splenic artery; 13 - spleen; 14 - pancreas; 15, 16 - left gastroepiploic artery and vein; 17 - lymph nodes of the gastroepiploic ligament; 18, 19 - right gastroepiploic vein and artery; 20 - a large gland; 21 - right gastric vein; 22 - liver; 23 - splenic vein; 25 - common bile duct; 26 - right gastric artery; 27 - portal vein

Lymph drainage. Similarly to the venous bed, the lymphatic system is also divided into intraorganic (along the layers of the wall) and extraorganic parts, corresponding to the course of the veins of the stomach. Regional lymph nodes for the stomach are the nodes of the lesser and greater omentum, as well as the nodes located at the gates of the spleen and along the celiac trunk (Fig. 15.12).

Rice. 15.12.Groups of lymph nodes of the upper floor of the abdominal cavity: 1 - hepatic nodes; 2 - celiac nodes; 3 - diaphragmatic nodes; 4 - left gastric nodes; 5 - splenic nodes; 6 - left gastro-omental nodes; 7 - right gastro-omental nodes; 8 - right gastric nodes; 9 - pyloric nodes; 10 - pancreatoduodenal nodes

15.6. CLINICAL ANATOMY OF THE LIVER AND BILE TRACT

Anatomical characteristic

Liveris a large parenchymal organ of a wedge-shaped or triangular flattened shape. It has two surfaces: the upper, or diaphragmatic, and the lower, or visceral. The liver is divided into right, left, quadrate and caudate lobes.

Topography of the liver

Tolotopia.The liver is located in the right hypochondrium, partly in the epigastrium and partly in the left hypochondrium.

Skeletotopia.The upper border of the projection of the liver on the abdominal wall corresponds to the height of the dome of the diaphragm on the right, while the lower one is extremely individual and can correspond to the edge of the costal arch or be higher or lower.

Syntopy.The diaphragmatic surface of the liver is closely adjacent to the diaphragm, through which it comes into contact with the right lung and partly with the heart. The junction of the diaphragmatic surface of the liver with the visceral posterior is called the posterior margin. It is devoid of a peritoneal cover, which makes it possible to speak of a non-peritoneal surface of the liver, or pars nuda. In this area, the aorta and especially the inferior vena cava closely adjoin the liver, which sometimes turns out to be immersed in the parenchyma of the organ. The visceral surface of the liver has a number of grooves and depressions, or impressions, the location of which is extremely individual and is laid down even in embryogenesis, the grooves are formed by passing vascular and ductal formations, and the depressions are formed by the underlying organs that press the liver upward. There are right and left longitudinal furrows and a transverse furrow. The right longitudinal sulcus contains the gallbladder and the inferior vena cava, the left longitudinal contains the round and venous ligaments of the liver, the transverse sulcus is called the gates of the liver and is the site of penetration into the organ of the branches of the portal vein, the proper hepatic artery and the exit of the hepatic ducts (right and left). On the left lobe, you can find an impression from the stomach and esophagus, on the right - from the duodenum, stomach, colon and right kidney with the adrenal gland.

Ligament apparatus represented by places of transition of the peritoneum from the liver to other organs and anatomical formations. On the diaphragmatic surface, the hepaphrenic ligament is isolated,

consisting of longitudinal (crescent ligament) and transverse (coronary ligament with right and left triangular ligaments) parts. This ligament is one of the main elements of liver fixation. On the visceral surface are the hepatoduodenal and hepatogastric ligaments, which are duplications of the peritoneum with vessels, nerve plexuses and fiber located inside. These two ligaments, along with the gastrophrenic ligament, make up the lesser omentum.

Blood enters the liver through two vessels - the portal vein and its own hepatic artery. The portal vein is formed by the confluence of the superior and inferior mesenteric veins with the splenic vein. As a result, the portal vein carries blood from the unpaired organs of the abdominal cavity - the small and large intestines, stomach, and spleen. The proper hepatic artery is one of the terminal branches of the common hepatic artery (the first branch of the celiac trunk). The portal vein and own hepatic artery are located in the thickness of the hepatoduodenal ligament, while the vein occupies an intermediate position between the arterial trunk and the common bile duct.

Not far from the gates of the liver, these vessels are each divided into two of their final branches - the right and left, which penetrate the liver and are divided into smaller branches. The bile ducts are located parallel to the vessels in the liver parenchyma. The proximity and parallelism of these vessels and ducts made it possible to distinguish them into a functional group, the so-called Glisson triad, the branches of which ensure the functioning of a strictly defined section of the liver parenchyma, isolated from others, called a segment. Liver segment - a section of the liver parenchyma in which the segmental branch of the portal vein branches, as well as the corresponding branch of its own hepatic artery and segmental bile duct. Currently, the division of the liver according to Couinaud is accepted, according to which 8 segments are distinguished (Fig. 15.13).

Venous outflowfrom the liver is carried out through the system of hepatic veins, the course of which does not correspond to the location of the elements of the Glisson triad. The features of the hepatic veins are the absence of valves and a strong connection with the connective tissue stroma of the organ, as a result of which these veins do not collapse when damaged. In the amount of 2-5, these veins open with mouths into the inferior vena cava passing behind the liver.

Rice. 15.13.Ligaments and segments of the liver: 1 - right triangular ligament; 2 - right coronary ligament; 3 - left coronary ligament; 4 - triangular ligament; 5 - crescent ligament; 6 - round ligament of the liver; 7 - gate of the liver; 8 - hepatoduodenal ligament; 9 - venous ligament. I-VIII - liver segments

Topography of the gallbladder

gallbladderIt is a hollow muscular organ in which the bottom, body and neck are isolated, through which the bladder is connected through the cystic duct with the rest of the bile ducts.

Tolotopia.The gallbladder is located in the right hypochondrium.

Skeletotopia.The projection of the bottom of the gallbladder corresponds to the point of intersection of the costal arch and the outer edge of the rectus abdominis muscle.

Syntopy.The upper wall of the gallbladder is closely adjacent to the visceral surface of the liver, in which a cystic fossa of the appropriate size is formed. Sometimes the gallbladder is, as it were, embedded in the parenchyma. Much more often, the lower wall of the gallbladder is in contact with the transverse colon (sometimes with the duodenum and stomach).

blood supplygallbladder is carried out by the cystic artery, which, as a rule, is a branch of the right hepatic artery. Given that its course is very variable, in practice, Callot's triangle is used to detect the cystic artery. The walls of this triangle are

Rice. 15.14.Extrahepatic bile ducts: 1 - right hepatic duct; 2 - left hepatic duct; 3 - common hepatic duct; 4 - cystic duct; 5 - common bile duct; 6 - supraduodenal part of the common bile duct; 7 - retroduodenal part of the common bile duct; 8 - pancreatic part of the common bile duct; 9 - intramural part of the common bile duct

cystic duct, common bile duct and cystic artery. The blood from the bladder flows through the cystic vein into the right branch of the portal vein.

Topography of the bile ducts

bile ductsare hollow tubular organs that provide the passage of bile from the liver into the duodenum. Directly at the gates of the liver are the right and left hepatic ducts, which, merging, form the common hepatic duct. Merging with the cystic duct, the latter forms the common bile duct, which, located in the thickness of the hepatoduodenal ligament, opens into the lumen of the duodenum with a large papilla. Topographically, the following parts of the common bile duct are distinguished (Fig. 15.14): supraduodenal (the duct is located in the hepatoduodenal ligament, occupying the extreme right position in relation to the portal vein and hepatic artery), retroduodenal (the duct is located behind the upper horizontal part of the duodenum), pancreatic (the duct is located behind the head of the pancreas, sometimes it turns out to be embedded in the parenchyma of the gland) and intramural (the duct passes through the wall of the duodenum and opens in the papilla). In the latter part, the common bile duct usually joins with the common pancreatic duct.

15.7. CLINICAL ANATOMY OF THE PANCREAS

Anatomical characteristic

The pancreas is a parenchymal organ of an elongated shape, in which the head, body and tail are isolated.

(Fig. 15.15).

Tolotopia.The pancreas is projected onto the epigastric and partially left hypochondrium.

Skeletotopia.The body of the gland is usually located at the level of the second lumbar vertebra. The head lies lower, and the tail is 1 vertebra higher.

Syntopy.The head of the gland from above, below and on the right is closely adjacent to the bend of the duodenum. Behind the head are the aorta and the inferior vena cava, and on top of the back surface -

the beginning of the portal vein. Anterior to the gland, separated from it by a stuffing box, lies the stomach. The back wall of the stomach adjoins the gland quite tightly, and if ulcers or tumors appear on it, the pathological process often passes to the pancreas (in these cases, they speak of penetration of the ulcer or germination of the tumor into the gland). The tail of the pancreas comes very close to the hilum of the spleen and may be damaged when the spleen is removed.

Rice. 15.15.Topography of the pancreas (from: Sinelnikov R.D., 1979): 1 - spleen; 2 - gastro-splenic ligament; 3 - tail of the pancreas; 4 - jejunum; 5 - ascending duodenum; 6 - head of the pancreas; 7 - left common colic artery; 8 - left common colonic vein; 9 - horizontal part of the duodenum; 10 - lower bend of the duodenum; 11 - root of the mesentery; 12 - descending part of the duodenum; 13 - upper pancreatoduodenal artery; 14 - upper part of the duodenum; 15 - portal vein; 16 - own hepatic artery; 17 - inferior vena cava; 18 - aorta; 19 - celiac trunk; 20 - splenic artery

Blood supply and venous outflow. Three sources take part in the blood supply of the gland: the celiac trunk (through the gastroduodenal artery) and the superior mesenteric artery mainly provide blood supply to the head and body of the gland; the body and tail of the gland receive blood from the short pancreatic branches of the splenic artery. Venous blood is drained into the splenic and superior mesenteric veins (Fig. 15.16).

Rice. 15.16.Arteries of the pancreas, duodenum and spleen (from: Sinelnikov R.D., 1979):

I - inferior vena cava vein; 2 - common hepatic artery; 3 - splenic artery; 4 - left gastric artery; 5 - left gastroepiploic artery; 6 - short gastric arteries; 7 - aorta; 8 - splenic artery; 9 - splenic vein; 10 - upper pancreatoduodenal artery;

II - gastroduodenal artery; 12 - portal vein; 13 - right gastric artery; 14 - own hepatic artery; 15 - right gastroepiploic artery

15.8. REVIEW TOPOGRAPHY OF THE LOWER FLOOR OF THE ABDOMINAL CAVITY

Internal organs

The lower floor of the abdominal cavity is located from the root of the mesentery of the transverse colon to the borderline, i.e. entrance to the pelvic cavity. The small and large intestines lie on this floor, while the peritoneum covers them differently, as a result of which a number of depressions - canals, sinuses, pockets - are formed at the transition points of the visceral peritoneum to the parietal and when the peritoneum passes from organ to organ. The practical significance of these recesses is the possibility of spreading (channels) or, conversely, delimitation (sinuses, pockets) of a purulent pathological process, as well as the possibility of forming internal hernias (pockets) (Fig. 15.17).

The root of the mesentery of the small intestine is a duplication of the peritoneum with cellular tissue, vessels and nerves located inside. It is located obliquely: from top to bottom, from left to right, starting at the level of the left half of the II lumbar vertebra and ending in the right iliac fossa. On its way, it crosses the duodenum (final section), abdominal aorta, inferior vena cava, right ureter. In its thickness passes the superior mesenteric artery with its branches and the superior mesenteric vein.

Peritoneal sinuses and pockets

Right mesenteric sinus it is bounded from above by the mesentery of the transverse colon, to the left and below by the root of the mesentery of the small intestine, to the right by the inner wall of the ascending colon.

Left mesenteric sinus bounded above by the root of the mesentery of the small intestine, below - by the terminal line, on the left - by the inner wall of the descending colon.

Rice. 15.17.Channels and sinuses of the lower floor of the abdominal cavity: 1 - right side channel; 2 - left side channel; 3 - right mesenteric sinus; 4 - left mesenteric sinus

Right side channel located between the ascending colon and the anterolateral wall of the abdomen. Through this channel, communication between the hepatic sac and the right iliac fossa is possible, i.e. between the upper and lower abdomen.

Left side channel lies between the anterolateral wall of the abdomen and the descending colon. In the upper part of the canal there is a diaphragmatic-colic ligament, which closes the canal from above in 25% of people. Through this channel, communication is possible (if the ligament is not expressed) between the left iliac fossa and the pregastric sac.

Peritoneal pockets. In the region of the duodenal-jejunal flexure, there is Treitz's pouch, or recessus duodenojejunalis. Its clinical significance lies in the possibility of true internal hernias occurring here.

In the region of the ileocecal junction, three pockets can be found: the upper and lower ileocecal pockets, located above and below the junction, respectively, and the retrocecal pocket, which lies behind the caecum. These pockets require special attention from the surgeon when performing an appendectomy.

Between the loops of the sigmoid colon is the intersigmoid pocket (recessus intersigmoideus). Internal hernias may also occur in this pocket.

Blood vessels (Fig. 15.18). At the level of the body of the first lumbar vertebra, the superior mesenteric artery departs from the abdominal aorta. It enters the root of the mesentery of the small intestine and branches into its own

Rice. 15.18.Branches of the superior and inferior mesenteric arteries: 1 - superior mesenteric artery; 2 - middle colon artery; 3 - right colon artery; 4 - ileocecal artery; 5 - artery of the appendix; 6 - jejunal arteries; 7 - ileal arteries; 8 - inferior mesenteric artery; 9 - left colic artery; 10 - sigmoid arteries; 11 - superior rectal artery

Rice. 15.19.The portal vein and its tributaries (from: Sinelnikov R.D., 1979).

I - esophageal veins; 2 - left branch of the portal vein; 3 - left gastric vein; 4 - right gastric vein; 5 - short gastric veins; 6 - splenic vein; 7 - left gastroepiploic vein; 8 - veins of the omentum; 9 - left renal vein; 10 - place of anastomosis of the middle and left colonic veins;

II - left colonic vein; 12 - inferior mesenteric vein; 13 - jejunal veins; 14, 23 - common iliac veins; 15 - sigmoid vein; 16 - superior rectal vein; 17 - internal iliac vein; 18 - external iliac vein; 19 - middle rectal vein; 20 - lower rectal vein; 21 - rectal venous plexus; 22 - vein of the appendix; 24 - iliac-colic vein; 25 - right colonic vein; 26 - middle colic vein; 27 - superior mesenteric vein; 28 - pancreatoduodenal vein; 29 - right gastroepiploic vein; 30 - paraumbilical veins; 31 - portal vein; 32 - right branch of the portal vein; 33 - venous capillaries of the liver; 34 - hepatic veins

end branches. At the level of the lower edge of the body of the III lumbar vertebra, the inferior mesenteric artery departs from the aorta. It is located retroperitoneally and gives branches to the descending colon, sigmoid and rectum.

Venous blood from the organs of the lower floor flows into the superior and inferior mesenteric veins, which, merging with the splenic vein, form the portal vein (Fig. 15.19).

Nerve plexuses

Nerve plexuses the lower floor is represented by parts of the aortic plexus: at the level of the origin of the superior mesenteric artery, the superior mesenteric plexus is located, at the level of the origin of the inferior mesenteric, the inferior mesenteric plexus, between which lies the intermesenteric plexus. Above the entrance to the small pelvis, the lower mesenteric plexus passes into the upper hypogastric plexus. These plexuses provide innervation of the small and large intestine.

Groups of lymph nodes

lymphatic system The small intestine is similar to the arterial one and is represented by several rows of lymph nodes. The first row is located along the marginal artery, the second - next to the intermediate arcades. The third group of lymph nodes lies along the superior mesenteric artery and is common to the small and part of the large intestine. The lymphatic system of the large intestine also consists of several rows, the first lying along the mesenteric edge of the intestine. In this row, groups of lymph nodes of the blind, ascending, transverse colon, descending colon and sigmoid colon are distinguished. At the level of the arcades lies the second row of lymph nodes. Finally, along the trunk of the inferior mesenteric artery lies the third row of lymph nodes. At level II of the lumbar vertebrae, the formation of the thoracic lymphatic duct occurs.

15.9. CLINICAL ANATOMY OF THE FINE

AND COLON

The large and small intestines are hollow muscular tubular organs, the wall of which consists of 4 layers: mucous membrane, submucosa, muscular and serous membranes. Layers

combined into cases similar to the structure of the stomach wall. The small intestine is divided into three parts: duodenum, jejunum and ileum. The large intestine is divided into 4 parts: the caecum, colon, sigmoid colon and rectum.

During abdominal surgery, it is often necessary to distinguish the small intestine from the large intestine. Allocate the main and additional features that allow you to distinguish one gut from another.

The main features: in the wall of the colon, the longitudinal layer of muscle fibers is located unevenly, it is combined into three longitudinal ribbons; between the ribbons, the wall of the intestine protrudes outward; between the protrusions of the wall there are constrictions, which cause the unevenness of the colon wall. Additional features: the large intestine normally has a larger diameter than the small intestine; the wall of the large intestine has a grayish-green color, the wall of the small intestine is pink; arteries and veins of the large intestine rarely form a developed network of arcades, in contrast to the arteries of the small intestine.

15.9.1 Duodenum

The duodenum is a hollow muscular organ with 4 sections: upper horizontal, descending, lower horizontal and ascending.

Tolotopia.The duodenum is located mainly in the epigastric and partly in the umbilical region.

Skeletotopia.The shape and length of the intestine can be different, its upper edge is located at the level of the upper edge of the 1st lumbar vertebra, the lower one - at the level of the middle of the 4th lumbar vertebra.

Syntopy.The root of the mesentery of the transverse colon passes horizontally through the middle of the descending part of the duodenum. The inner-left surface of the duodenum is closely connected with the pancreas, the Vater nipple is also located there - the place where the common bile and pancreatic ducts flow into the intestine. The outer right wall of the intestine is adjacent to the right kidney. The upper wall of the intestinal ampulla forms a corresponding impression on the visceral surface of the liver.

Connective device. Most of the intestine is fixed to the back wall of the abdomen, however, the initial and final sections lie freely and are held by ligaments. The ampoule is supported by the hepatoduodenal and duodenal ligaments. Finite

department, or flexura duodenojejunal,fixed with the Treitz ligament, which, unlike other ligaments, has a muscle in its thickness - m. suspensorius duodeni.

blood supplyThe duodenum is provided by two arterial arches - anterior and posterior. The upper part of these arches is formed by the branches of the gastroduodenal artery, and the lower part by the branches of the superior mesenteric artery. Venous vessels are arranged similarly to arteries.

innervationThe duodenum is carried out mainly by the vagus nerves and the celiac plexus.

Lymph drainage.The main lymphatic vessels are located along with the blood vessels. Regional lymph nodes are nodes located in the gates of the liver and in the root of the mesentery of the small intestine.

15.9.2. The jejunum and ileum

Tolotopia.The jejunum and ileum can be found in the mesogastric and hypogastric regions.

Skeletotopia.The small intestine is unstable in its position, only its beginning and end are fixed, the projection of which corresponds to the projection of the beginning and end of the root of the mesentery of the small intestine.

Syntopy.In the lower floor of the abdominal cavity, the jejunum and ileum are located in the central part. Behind them lie the organs of the retroperitoneal space, in front - a large omentum. On the right are the ascending colon, caecum and appendix, on top is the transverse colon, on the left is the descending colon, which passes into the sigmoid colon from below.

blood supplyjejunum and ileum is carried out at the expense of the superior mesenteric artery, which gives rise to the jejunal and ileo-intestinal arteries (total number 11-16). Each of these arteries divides according to the type of bifurcation, and the resulting branches merge with each other, forming a system of collaterals called arcades. The last row of arcades is located next to the wall of the small intestine and is called a parallel or marginal vessel. Direct arteries run from it to the intestinal wall, each of which supplies blood to a certain part of the small intestine. Venous vessels are located similarly to arterial ones. Venous blood flows into the superior mesenteric vein.

innervationThe small intestine is carried by the superior mesenteric plexus.

Lymph drainagefrom the jejunum and ileum goes to the mesenteric lymph nodes, then to the lymph nodes along the aorta and the inferior vena cava. Part of the lymphatic vessels opens directly into the thoracic lymphatic duct.

15.9.3. Cecum

The caecum is located in the right iliac fossa. In the lower part of the intestine lies the appendix, or appendix.

Tolotopia.The caecum and appendix, as a rule, are projected onto the right ilio-inguinal region, however, the appendix can have a very different position and direction - from the suprapubic to the right lateral or even subcostal region. During the operation, muscle bands of the caecum are used to search for the appendix - the mouth of the appendix is ​​located at the junction of all three bands with each other.

Skeletotopiathe cecum, as well as the colon, is individual. As a rule, the caecum is located in the right iliac fossa.

Syntopy.On the inside, the terminal ileum is adjacent to the caecum. At the point of transition of the ileum into the blind is the so-called ileocecal valve, or valve. In the upper part of the caecum passes into the ascending colon.

blood supplyThe cecum, as well as the appendix, is carried out due to the last branch of the superior mesenteric artery - the ileocolic artery, which, in turn, approaching the ileocecal junction, is divided into the ascending branch, the anterior and posterior caecal arteries and the artery of the appendix. Venous vessels are located similarly to arterial ones (Fig. 15.20).

innervationcaecum and appendix is ​​carried out due to the mesenteric plexus.

Lymph drainage.The regional lymph nodes for the caecum and appendix are those located along the superior mesenteric vessels.

Rice. 15.20.Parts and blood vessels of the ileocecal angle: 1 - ileum; 2 - appendix; 3 - caecum; 4 - ascending colon; 5 - upper ileo-caecal pocket of the peritoneum; 6 - lower ileo-caecal pocket of the peritoneum; 7 - mesentery of the appendix; 8 - anterior band of the colon; 9 - upper cusp of the ileocecal valve; 10 - lower sash; 11 - superior mesenteric artery and vein; 12 - artery and vein of the appendix

15.9.4. Colon

The ascending, transverse, descending and sigmoid colons are distinguished. The transverse colon is covered with peritoneum on all sides, has a mesentery and is located on the border of the upper and lower floors. The ascending and descending colon is covered by the peritoneum mesoperitoneally and is rigidly fixed in the abdominal cavity. The sigmoid colon is located in the left iliac fossa, covered with peritoneum on all sides and has a mesentery. Behind the mesentery is the intersigmoid pocket.

blood supplyThe colon is carried out by the superior and inferior mesenteric arteries.

innervationthe colon is provided by branches of the mesenteric plexus.

Lymph drainageis carried out in the nodes located along the mesenteric vessels, aorta and inferior vena cava.

15.10. OVERVIEW TOPOGRAPHY OF THE RETROPERITONEAL

SPACES

Retroperitoneal space - a cellular space with organs, vessels and nerves located in it, constituting the posterior part of the abdominal cavity, bounded in front by the parietal peritoneum, behind - by the intra-abdominal fascia covering the spinal column and muscles of the lumbar regions, extending from top to bottom from the diaphragm to the entrance to the small pelvis. On the sides, the retroperitoneal space passes into the preperitoneal tissue. In the retroperitoneal space, a median section and two lateral ones are distinguished. In the lateral part of the retroperitoneal space are the adrenal glands, kidneys, ureters. In the middle part, the abdominal aorta, the inferior vena cava pass, and the nerve plexuses are located.

Fascia and cellular spaces

The retroperitoneal fascia divides the retroperitoneal space into cellular layers, the first of which is the retroperitoneal tissue itself, which is limited by the intra-abdominal fascia at the back and the retroperitoneal fascia at the front (Fig. 15.21, 15.22). This layer is a continuation of the preperitoneal tissue, upward it passes into the tissue of the subdiaphragmatic space, downward into the tissue of the small pelvis.

At the outer edge of the kidney, the retroperitoneal fascia divides into two sheets, which are called the prerenal and retrorenal fascia. These leaves between themselves limit the next cellular layer - perirenal fiber. The fatty tissue of this layer surrounds the kidneys on all sides, extends upward, covering the adrenal gland, and downwards passes into the periureteral tissue and then connects to the tissue of the small pelvis.

In the medial direction, the retrorenal fascia grows together with the intra-abdominal fascia, as well as with the periosteum of the XI-XII ribs, thus, the retroperitoneal cellular layer itself becomes thinner and disappears. The prerenal fascia runs behind

duodenum and pancreas and connects to the same fascia of the opposite side. Between these organs and the prerenal fascia, slit-like spaces remain, containing loose, unformed connective tissue.

Behind the ascending and descending sections of the colon there is a retrocolic fascia (Toldt's fascia), which limits the third cellular layer in front - the pericolonic cellulose. Posteriorly, the paracolic tissue is limited by the prerenal fascia.

These cellular spaces are the place of origin and distribution of purulent processes. Due to the presence of nerve plexuses in the cellular spaces, local blockades for pain relief play an important clinical role.

Rice. 15.21.Scheme of the retroperitoneal space in a horizontal section: 1 - skin; 2 - subcutaneous fatty tissue; 3 - superficial fascia; 4 - own fascia; 5 - tendon of the latissimus dorsi muscle; 6 - the latissimus dorsi muscle; 7 - muscle that straightens the spine; 8 - external oblique, internal oblique and transverse abdominal muscles; 9 - square muscle; 10 - large lumbar muscle; 11 - intra-abdominal fascia; 12 - retroperitoneal fascia; 13 - preperitoneal fiber; 14 - left kidney; 15 - perirenal fiber; 16 - paracolic tissue; 17 - ascending and descending colon; 18 - aorta; 19 - inferior vena cava; 20 - parietal peritoneum

Rice. 15.22.Scheme of the retroperitoneal space on the sagittal section: - intra-abdominal fascia; 2 - own retroperitoneal cellular layer; 3 - retrorenal fascia; 4 - perirenal cellular layer; 5 - prerenal fascia; 6 - kidney; 7 - ureter; 8 - periureteral cellular layer; 9 - paracolic cellular layer; 10 - ascending colon; 11 - visceral peritoneum

15.11. CLINICAL ANATOMY OF THE KIDNEYS

Anatomical characteristic

External building. The kidneys are located in the lateral part of the retroperitoneal space on the sides of the spinal column. They distinguish the anterior and posterior surfaces, the outer convex and inner concave edges. On the inner edge there is a gate of the kidney, which includes the renal pedicle. The renal pedicle consists of the renal artery, renal vein, pelvis, renal plexus and lymphatic vessels, which are interrupted in the renal lymph nodes. The topography of the elements of the renal pedicle is as follows: the anterior position is occupied by the renal vein, posterior to it is the renal artery, and the artery is followed by the renal pelvis. The kidney parenchyma is divided into segments.

segmental structure. The anatomical basis for dividing the kidney into segments is the branching of the renal artery. The most common variant is the division into 5 segments: 1st - upper, 2nd - anterior superior, 3rd - anteroinferior, 4th - inferior and 5th - posterior. Between the first 4 segments and the 5th segment there is a line of natural divisibility of the kidney. The kidneys are surrounded by three membranes. The first, fibrous capsule of the kidney, is adjacent to the parenchyma, with which it is loosely connected, which makes it possible to separate it in a blunt way. Second capsule

Adipose - formed by perirenal adipose tissue. Third capsule - fascial

It is formed by sheets of pre- and retrorenal fascia. In addition to these three capsules, the renal stalk, muscle bed and intra-abdominal pressure are referred to the fixing apparatus of the kidneys.

Topography of the kidneys

Skeletotopia(Fig. 15.23). Skeletotopically, the kidneys are projected at the level of the XI thoracic to the I lumbar vertebrae on the left and at the level of the XII thoracic - II lumbar vertebrae on the right. XII rib crosses the left

Rice. 15.23.Skeletotopia of the kidneys (front view)

kidney in the middle, and the right kidney - at the level of the upper and middle thirds. On the anterior abdominal wall, the kidneys are projected into the epigastric region proper, hypochondrium and lateral regions. The hilum of the kidney is projected from the front to the intersection of the outer edge of the rectus abdominis muscle with the line connecting the ends of the XI ribs. Behind the gate are projected in the corner between the extensor of the back and the XII rib.

Syntopy.Syntopy of the kidneys is complex, while the kidneys are in contact with the surrounding organs through their membranes and adjacent fiber. So, the right kidney from above borders on the liver and the right adrenal gland, on the left - on the descending section of the duodenum and the inferior vena cava, in front - on the ascending section of the colon and loops of the small intestine. The left kidney is in contact with the adrenal gland from above, in front - with the tail of the pancreas, the descending colon, on the right - with the abdominal aorta. Behind both kidneys lie in a bed formed by the muscles of the lumbar region.

Holotopia.The longitudinal axes of the kidneys form an angle open downwards, in addition, in the horizontal plane, the kidneys form an angle open anteriorly. Thus, the gates of the kidneys are directed downward and anteriorly.

Blood supply and venous return

The kidneys are supplied with blood by the renal arteries, which are branches of the abdominal aorta. The right renal artery is shorter than the left and passes behind the inferior vena cava and the descending duodenum. The left renal artery runs behind the tail of the pancreas. Before entering the kidney, the inferior adrenal arteries depart from the arteries. At the gates of the kidneys, the arteries are divided into anterior and posterior branches, the anterior, in turn, is divided into 4 segmental branches. In 20% of cases, the kidneys receive additional blood supply from additional branches that extend either from the abdominal aorta itself or from its branches. Accessory arteries most often enter the parenchyma at the poles. Venous outflow occurs through the renal veins into the inferior vena cava. On its way, the testicular (ovarian) vein flows into the left renal vein.

The kidneys are innervated by the renal plexus, which is localized along the course of the renal artery.

The lymphatic vessels of the kidneys flow into the lymph nodes of the renal gate, and then into the nodes along the aorta and inferior vena cava.

15.12. URETER

The ureters start from the pelvis and end with the flow into the bladder. They are a hollow muscular organ with a typical wall structure. The length of the ureter is 28-32 cm, the diameter is 0.4-1 cm. There are two sections of the ureter: abdominal and pelvic, the boundary between them is the boundary line. There are three constrictions along the ureter. The first constriction is located at the junction of the pelvis with the ureter, the second at the level of the borderline, and the third at the confluence of the ureter with the bladder.

The projection of the ureters on the anterior abdominal wall corresponds to the outer edge of the rectus abdominis muscle. The syntopic relations of the ureters, as well as those of the kidneys, are mediated by the fatty tissue surrounding them. The inferior vena cava passes medially from the right ureter, and the ascending colon passes laterally. The abdominal aorta passes medially from the left ureter, and the descending colon passes outwards. Both ureters are crossed anteriorly by the gonadal vessels. In the cavity of the small pelvis, the internal iliac artery is adjacent to the ureters behind the ureters. In addition, in women, the ureters posteriorly cross the uterine appendages.

The ureters are supplied with blood in the upper part by the branches of the renal artery, in the middle third by the testicular or ovarian artery, in the lower third by the vesical arteries. Innervation is carried out from the renal, lumbar and cystic plexuses.

15.13. ADRENAL

The adrenal glands are paired endocrine glands located in the upper part of the retroperitoneal space. The adrenal glands can be crescent-shaped, U-shaped, oval, and hat-shaped. The right adrenal gland is located between the liver and the lumbar part of the diaphragm, while between the gland and the upper pole of the right kidney there is a layer of fatty tissue up to 3 cm thick. The position of the left adrenal gland is more variable: it can be located above the upper pole of the left kidney, it can move closer to its lateral edge , as well as descend on the renal pedicle. The blood supply to the adrenal glands comes from three main sources: the superior adrenal artery (a branch of the inferior phrenic artery), the middle

adrenal artery (branch of the abdominal aorta) and inferior adrenal artery (branch of the renal artery). Venous outflow goes to the central vein of the adrenal gland and then to the inferior vena cava. The glands are innervated by the adrenal plexus. The glands consist of a cortical and medulla and produce a number of hormones. The cortex produces glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids, and androgens, and adrenaline and norepinephrine are synthesized in the medulla.

15.14. LAPAROTOMY

Laparotomy is an operative access to the organs of the abdominal cavity, carried out by layer-by-layer dissection of the anterolateral abdominal wall and opening the peritoneal cavity.

There are different types of laparotomy: longitudinal, transverse, oblique, combined, thoracolaparotomy (Fig. 15.24). When choosing an access, they are guided by the requirements for incisions of the abdominal wall, which must correspond to the projection of the organ, it is enough to expose the organ, be less traumatic and form a strong postoperative scar.

Longitudinal incisions include median incisions (upper median, middle median and lower median laparotomy), transrectal, pararectal, longitudinal lateral. The most commonly used median incisions in the clinic are characterized by minimal tissue trauma, mild bleeding, no muscle damage, and wide

Rice. 15.24.Types of laparotomic incisions:

1 - upper median laparotomy;

2 - incision in the right hypochondrium according to Fedorov; 3 - pararectal incision; 4 - according to Volkovich-Dyakonov; 5 - lower median laparotomy

access to the abdominal organs. But in a number of clinical cases, longitudinal median approaches cannot provide a full operational review. Then they resort to others, including more traumatic combined accesses. When performing pararectal, oblique, transverse and combined approaches, the surgeon necessarily crosses the muscles of the anterolateral abdominal wall, which can lead to their partial atrophy and, as a result, the occurrence of postoperative complications, such as postoperative hernias.

15.15. HERNISECTION

A hernia is a protrusion of the abdominal organs covered with the peritoneum through a congenital or acquired defect in the muscular-aponeurotic layers of the abdominal wall. The components of a hernia are the hernial orifice, hernial sac and hernial contents. Hernial orifice is understood as a natural or pathological opening in the muscular-aponeurotic layer of the abdominal wall, through which the hernial protrusion emerges. The hernial sac is a part of the parietal peritoneum that protrudes through the hernial orifice. Organs, parts of organs and tissues located in the cavity of the hernial sac are called hernial contents.

Rice. 15.25.Stages of isolation of the hernial sac in oblique inguinal hernia: a - the aponeurosis of the external oblique muscle of the abdomen is exposed; b - the hernial sac is highlighted; 1 - aponeurosis of the external oblique muscle of the abdomen; 2 - spermatic cord; 3 - hernial sac

In clinical practice, the most common are inguinal, femoral, and umbilical hernias.

With inguinal hernias, under the action of a hernial protrusion, the walls of the inguinal canal are destroyed, and the hernial sac with the contents comes out under the skin above the inguinal ligament. Hernial contents, as a rule, are loops of the small intestine or a large omentum. Allocate direct and oblique inguinal hernia. If the posterior wall of the inguinal canal is destroyed, then the hernial sac follows the shortest path, and the hernial ring is located in the medial inguinal fossa. Such a hernia is called direct. With an oblique inguinal hernia, the gate is located in the lateral inguinal fossa, the hernial sac enters through the deep inguinal ring, passes through the entire canal and, destroying its front wall, exits through the superficial ring under the skin. Depending on the nature of the hernia - direct or oblique - there are various methods of its surgical treatment. With a direct inguinal hernia, it is advisable to strengthen the posterior wall, with an oblique one, the anterior wall of the inguinal canal.

With a femoral hernia, its gates are located under the inguinal ligament, and the hernial sac goes under the skin through a muscular or vascular lacuna.

An umbilical hernia is characterized by the appearance of a protrusion in the umbilical region; usually purchased.

15.16. OPERATIONS ON THE STOMACH

Gastrotomy- the operation of opening the lumen of the stomach with the subsequent closure of this incision.

Indications for surgery: difficulty in diagnosis and clarification of the diagnosis, solitary polyps of the stomach, infringement in the pyloric zone of the gastric mucosa, foreign bodies, bleeding ulcers in debilitated patients.

Operation technique. Access is carried out by upper median laparotomy. At the border of the middle and lower thirds on the anterior wall, an incision is made in the stomach wall through all layers 5-6 cm long, parallel to the longitudinal axis of the organ. The edges of the wound are bred with hooks, the contents of the stomach are sucked off, and its mucous membrane is examined. If a pathology (polyp, ulcer, bleeding) is detected, the necessary manipulations are performed. After that, the gastrotomy wound is sutured with a two-row suture.

Gastrostomy- an operation to create an external fistula of the stomach for the purpose of artificial feeding of the patient.

Indications for surgery: cicatricial, tumor stenosis of the esophagus, severe traumatic brain injury, bulbar disorders requiring prolonged artificial nutrition sick.

Operation technique. The entrance to the abdominal cavity is carried out by a left-sided transrectal laparotomy. The anterior wall of the stomach is brought out into the wound, and in the middle of the distance between the greater and lesser curvature along the longitudinal axis of the stomach, a rubber tube is applied to the stomach wall, the end of which should be directed to the cardial part. Folds are formed around the tube from the wall of the stomach, which are fixed with several serous-muscular sutures. At last seam a purse-string suture is applied, an incision is made in the center and the end of the probe is inserted into the stomach. The purse-string suture is tightened, and the folds of the wall are sewn over the tube. The proximal end of the tube is brought out through the surgical wound, and the stomach wall is sutured to the parietal peritoneum with interrupted gray-serous sutures. The surgical wound is sutured in layers.

Gastroenterostomy - operation on imposing of an anastomosis between a stomach and a small bowel.

Indications for surgery: inoperable cancer of the antrum of the stomach, cicatricial stenosis of the pylorus and duodenum.

Operation technique. The creation of an anastomosis of the stomach with the small intestine can be performed in various ways: behind or in front of the colon, and also depending on which wall of the stomach - anterior or posterior - the small intestine is sutured. The most commonly used are the anterior precolic and posterior retrocolic variants.

Anterior precolon gastroenterostomy (according to Welfler) is performed from the upper median laparotomy. After opening the abdominal cavity, a duodeno-jejunal flexure is found and a loop of jejunum is taken at a distance of 20-25 cm from it, which is placed next to the stomach above the transverse colon and greater omentum. The bowel loop should be located isoperistaltically with the stomach. Next, an anastomosis is applied between them according to the side-to-side type with a two-row suture. To improve the passage of food between the afferent and efferent loops of the small intestine, a second side-to-side anastomosis is applied according to Brown. The operation is completed by layer-by-layer suturing of the abdominal cavity tightly.

Posterior retrocolic gastroenterostomy. The access is similar. When opening the abdominal cavity, the greater omentum and the transverse colon are raised at the top and a cut of about 10 cm is made in the mesentery of the transverse colon (mesocolon) in the avascular area. Departing from the duodenal-jejunal bend, a loop of the jejunum is isolated and an anastomosis is applied between it and the fold on the posterior wall of the stomach in a side-to-side type with a two-row suture. The location of the anastomosis can be transverse or longitudinal. Further, the edges of the opening in the mesentery of the transverse colon are sutured with gray-serous sutures to the posterior wall of the stomach in order to avoid slippage and infringement of the loop of the small intestine. The abdominal cavity is sutured tightly in layers.

Resection of the stomach - an operation to remove part of the stomach with the formation of a gastrointestinal anastomosis.

Indications for surgery: chronic ulcers, extensive wounds, benign and malignant neoplasms stomach.

Depending on the section of the stomach to be removed, there are proximal (removal of the cardiac section, fundus and body), pyloric antral (removal of the pyloric section and part of the body) and partial (removal of only the affected part of the stomach) resection. According to the volume of the removed part, one can distinguish resection of one third, two thirds, half of the stomach, subtotal (removal of the entire stomach, with the exception of its cardia and fornix), total (or gastrectomy).

Operation technique. There are many options for gastric resection, of which Billroth-I and Billroth-II operations and their modifications are most often used (Fig. 15.26). Access to the stomach is performed by upper median laparotomy. Operational guidance consists of several stages. Initially, after access, the stomach is mobilized. The next step is the resection of the part of the stomach prepared for removal, while the remaining proximal and distal stumps are sutured. Further, it is necessary to obligatory step is the restoration of the continuity of the digestive tract, which is carried out in two ways: according to Billroth-I and Billroth-II. The operation in both cases ends with the sanitation of the abdominal cavity and its layer-by-layer suturing.

Gastrectomy- complete removal stomach with an anastomosis between the esophagus and the jejunum. Indications and main steps

Rice. 15.26.Schemes of resection of the stomach: a - resection boundaries: 1-2 - pyloric antral; 1-3 - subtotal; b - scheme of resection according to Billroth-I; c - resection scheme according to Billroth-II

operations are similar to those of resection of the stomach. After removal of the stomach, the continuity of the gastrointestinal tract is restored by connecting the esophagus to the small intestine (formation of an esophagojejunostomy).

Gastroplasty- autoplastic surgery to replace the stomach with a segment of the small or large intestine. Performed after a gastrectomy, which is significantly frustrating digestive function. As an autograft, a section of the small intestine 15-20 cm long is used, which is inserted between the esophagus and the duodenum, the transverse or descending colon.

Pyloroplasty according to Heineke-Mikulich - operation of longitudinal dissection of the pyloric sphincter without opening the mucous membrane with subsequent stitching of the wall in the transverse direction. It is used for chronic and complicated duodenal ulcer.

Vagotomy- the operation of the intersection of the vagus nerves or their individual branches. It is not used on its own, it is used as an additional measure in operations for gastric and duodenal ulcers.

There are stem and selective vagotomy. With stem vagotomy, the trunks of the vagus nerves are crossed under the diaphragm until they branch, with selective - the gastric branches of the vagus nerve with the preservation of branches to the liver and celiac plexus.

15.17. OPERATIONS ON THE LIVER AND BILE TRACKS

Liver resection- surgery to remove part of the liver.

Resections are divided into two groups: anatomical (typical) and atypical resections. Anatomical resections include: segmental resections; left hemihepatectomy; right hemihepatectomy; left lateral lobectomy; right lateral lobectomy. Atypical resections include wedge-shaped; marginal and transverse resection.

Indications for resection are injuries, benign and malignant tumors and other pathological processes that have a limited prevalence.

Access to the liver is different depending on the location of the pathological focus. Laparotomic incisions are most commonly used, but there may be combined approaches. The stages of anatomical resection begin with the isolation of the segmental branch of the hepatic artery, the segmental branch of the portal vein, and the segmental bile duct in the hilum of the liver. After ligation of the segmental branch of the hepatic artery, the area of ​​the liver parenchyma changes color. A segment of the liver is cut along this border and the hepatic vein is found, which drains venous blood from this area, it is tied up and crossed. Next, the wound surface of the liver is sutured using straight atraumatic needles with capture into the suture of the liver capsule.

In atypical resections, the first step is to cut the parenchyma, and then ligate the crossed vessels and bile ducts. The last step is suturing the wound surface of the liver.

Operations for portal hypertension are distinguished into a special group of operations on the liver. Of the many proposed operations to create fistulas between the portal and inferior vena cava systems, the operation of choice is splenorenal anastomosis, which is currently recommended to be performed using microsurgical techniques.

Operations on the biliary tract can be divided into operations on the gallbladder, operations on the common bile duct, operations on the major duodenal papilla, reconstructive operations on the biliary tract.

The main accesses to the extrahepatic biliary tract are oblique incisions according to Fedorov, Kocher, upper median laparotomy, less often other types of laparotomy. Anesthesia: anesthesia, the position of the patient - lying on his back with a padded roller.

Operations on the gallbladder

Cholecystotomy- surgery to cut the wall of the gallbladder to remove stones from its cavity, followed by suturing the wall of the gallbladder.

Cholecystostomy - Operation of the imposition of the external fistula of the gallbladder. It is performed in debilitated patients to eliminate the phenomena of obstructive jaundice.

Cholecystectomy - surgery to remove the gallbladder.

Technically, it is performed in two modifications: with the release of a bubble from the neck or bottom. It is performed for acute or chronic inflammation of the gallbladder. In modern conditions, the technique of laparoscopic removal of the bladder is increasingly being used.

Operations on the common bile duct

Choledochotomy- the operation of opening the lumen of the common bile duct by dissecting its wall, followed by suturing or drainage. Depending on the place of opening of the lumen, supraduodenal, retroduodenal, transduodenal choledochotomy is distinguished. External drainage of the common bile duct is called choledochostomy.

Operations on the major duodenal papilla

Stenosis of the major duodenal papilla and wedging of a stone at its mouth are the main indications for the following operations.

Papillotomy- dissection of the wall of the major duodenal papilla.

Papilloplasty - dissection of the wall of the major duodenal papilla, followed by suturing.

Papillosphincterotomy - dissection of the wall and sphincter of the major duodenal papilla.

Papillosphincteroplasty - dissection of the wall and sphincter of the major duodenal papilla, followed by suturing the cut edges.

Papillotomy and papillosphincterotomy can be performed endoscopically, i.e. without opening the lumen of the duodenum. Papillosphincteroplasty is performed with opening of the abdominal cavity and duodenum.

Reconstructive operations include biliodigestive anastomoses. Indications: stenosis of the extrahepatic biliary tract

of various origins, iatrogenic injuries of the biliary tract, etc.

Cholecystoduodenostomy - an anastomosis operation between the gallbladder and the duodenum.

Cholecystojejunostomy - operation of anastomosis between the gallbladder and the jejunum.

Choledochoduodenostomy - anastomosis between the common bile duct and the duodenum.

Choledochojejunostomy - the operation of imposing an anastomosis between the common bile duct and the loop of the jejunum.

Hepaticoduodenostomy - the operation of imposing an anastomosis between the common hepatic duct and the jejunum.

Currently, biliodigestive anastomoses must necessarily have areflux and sphincter properties, which is achieved using microsurgical techniques.

15.18. OPERATIONS ON THE PANCREAS

Operations on the pancreas are complex surgical interventions. Access to the gland can be either extraperitoneal (to the posterior surface of the gland) or transperitoneal, with dissection of the gastrocolic ligament or mesentery of the transverse colon.

necrectomy- a sparing operation to remove necrotic areas of the pancreas. It is performed with pancreatic necrosis, purulent pancreatitis against the background of a serious condition of the patient.

Cystoenterostomy - the operation of imposing a message between the pancreatic cyst and the lumen of the small intestine.

Indication for surgery: pancreatic cyst with well-formed walls.

Operation technique. After opening the abdominal cavity, an incision is made in the cyst wall, its contents are evacuated, the partitions in it are destroyed to form a single cavity. Next, an anastomosis is placed between the cyst wall and the small intestine. The operation is completed with drainage and layer-by-layer suturing of the surgical wound.

Left side pancreatic resection - removal of the tail and part of the body of the pancreas.

Indications for surgery: trauma to the tail of the gland, pancreatic necrosis of this area, tumor lesions. Access to the gland is described above.

The main conditions for a successful operation: maintaining a full-fledged outflow of pancreatic secretion along the main duct, full peritonization of the pancreatic stump. After surgery, the patient's insulin levels must be carefully monitored.

Pancreatoduodenal resection - an operation to remove the head of the pancreas together with a part of the duodenum, followed by the imposition of gastrojejuno-, choledochojejuno- and pancreatojejunoanastomosis to restore the passage of gastric contents, bile and pancreatic juice. The operation is one of the most difficult surgical interventions due to significant organ trauma.

Indications for surgery: tumors, necrosis of the head of the pancreas.

Operation technique. Access - laparotomy. Initially, the duodenum, pancreas, stomach, and choledochus are mobilized. Next, these organs are cut off with careful cover of the pancreatic stump to avoid leakage of pancreatic juice. At this stage, all manipulations with adjacent vessels require great care. The next is the reconstructive stage, during which the pancreatojejuno-, gastrojejuno- and choledochojejunoanastomosis is sequentially applied. The operation is completed by washing, draining and suturing the abdominal cavity.

15.19. OPERATIONS ON THE SMALL AND COLON INTESTINE

Intestinal suture - a suture used for suturing all hollow tubular organs, the walls of which have a sheath structure, i.e. consist of 4 membranes: mucous, submucosal, muscular and serous (or adventitial), combined into two loosely interconnected cases: muco-submucosal and muscular-serous.

The intestinal suture must meet several requirements: it must be airtight to prevent leakage of the contents of the hollow organ and mechanically strong, in addition, when making the suture, its hemostaticity must be ensured. Another requirement is the asepticity of the intestinal suture, i.e. the needle should not penetrate the mucosa into the lumen of the organ, the inner shell should remain intact.

Enterostomy- the operation of imposing an external fistula on the jejunum (jejunostomy) or ileum (ileostomy) intestine.

Indications for surgery: for drainage of the common bile duct, parenteral nutrition, decompression of the intestinal tube, cancer of the caecum.

Operation technique. Access - laparotomy. A loop of the small intestine is sutured with interrupted sutures to the parietal peritoneum. The intestine is opened immediately or after 2-3 days. The edges of the intestinal wall are sutured to the skin.

Colostomy- the operation of imposing an external fistula on the large intestine. Through the superimposed colostomy, only part of the stool is excreted, the rest goes its usual way.

Indications for colostomy: necrosis or perforation of a section of the colon if its resection is impossible, tumors of the colon. Depending on the localization, a cecostomy, a sigmoideostomy and a transversostomy are distinguished. The most commonly performed cecostomy is the operation of applying an external fistula to the caecum. The technique of cecostomy is as follows. The incision is made in the right iliac region through McBurney's point. The caecum is brought out into the wound and sutured to the parietal peritoneum. The intestine is not opened, an aseptic bandage is applied to the wound. Within 1-2 days, the visceral peritoneum is soldered along the entire circumference of the suture with the parietal. After that, you can open the lumen of the intestine. For a while, a drainage tube can be inserted into the intestine. Currently, specially designed colostomy bags are used.

The technique of sigmoideostomy and transversostomy is similar.

Unnatural anus - artificially created by surgical operation external fistula of the large intestine, through which its fecal contents are excreted completely outside.

Indications for surgery: tumors of the underlying colon, wounds of the rectum, perforation of ulcers and diverticula.

Operation technique. The operation is performed only on free areas of the colon - transverse colon or sigmoid. Access - oblique incision in the left iliac region. The parietal peritoneum is sutured to the skin. The adductor and efferent loops of the sigmoid colon are brought into the wound, their mesenteric edges are sutured with gray-serous interrupted sutures to form a "double-barreled". The visceral peritoneum of the intestine is sutured to the parietal to isolate the peritoneal cavity from the external environment. Intestinal wall

open a few days later with a transverse incision, thus opening the gaps of both the afferent and efferent loops, which prevents the passage of feces into the distal loop. A superimposed artificial anus requires careful care.

Resection of the small intestine - an operation to remove a part of the jejunum or ileum with the formation of an enteroanastomosis of the end-to-end or side-to-side type.

Indications for surgery: tumors of the small intestine, necrosis of the small intestine with thrombosis of the mesenteric vessels, intestinal obstruction, strangulated hernia.

Operation technique. Access - laparotomy. After opening the abdominal cavity, the section of the intestine to be resected is taken out into the wound and separated with gauze napkins. Further, in this area, all vessels of the mesentery are ligated, after which it is separated from the intestinal wall. Next, resection of the intestine is performed and stumps are formed at the remaining ends. The stumps are applied to each other isoperistaltically and enteroenteroanastomosis is applied side to side to restore the patency of the digestive tube. Some surgeons perform an end-to-end anastomosis, which is more physiological. The laparotomic wound is sutured in layers.

Resection of the transverse colon - an operation to remove a part of the transverse colon with the imposition of anastomosis between the parts according to the end-to-end type.

Indications for surgery: necrosis of parts of the intestine, its tumors, intussusceptions.

The technique of the operation is similar to the resection of the small intestine. After removal of part of the intestine, the patency is restored by end-to-end anastomosis. Given the significant bacterial contamination of the colon, when applying an anastomosis, a three-row suture is used or the anastomosis is applied in a delayed manner.

Right hemicolectomy - operation of removal of the caecum with the terminal section of the ileum, ascending colon and the right section of the transverse colon with the imposition of anastomosis between the ileum and the transverse colon of the end-to-side or side-to-side type.

Indications for surgery: necrosis, invagination, tumors.

Operation technique. Perform a laparotomy. After opening the abdominal cavity, the ileum is isolated, bandaged

the vessels of her mesentery, after which the mesentery is cut off. The ileum is transected at the required site. The next step is to isolate the caecum and ascending colon and tie up the vessels that feed them. The removed part of the colon is cut off, and its stump is sutured with a three-row suture. To restore intestinal patency at the final stage of the operation, an ileotransverse anastomosis is applied. The wound is drained and sutured in layers.

Left hemicolectomy - an operation to remove the left section of the transverse, descending colon and most of the sigmoid colon with the imposition of an anastomosis between the transverse colon and the stump of the sigmoid colon or the initial part of the rectum, end-to-end. Indication for surgery: tumor process in the left half of the colon.

15.20. APPENDECTOMY

Appendectomy is an operation to remove the appendix. This operation is one of the most frequently performed in abdominal surgery.

The indication for appendectomy is catarrhal, phlegmonous or putrefactive inflammation of the appendix.

Operation technique. In the right iliac region, a variable incision of the anterior abdominal wall is made according to Volkovich-Dyakonov parallel to the inguinal ligament through the McBurney point, which is located on the border of the outer and middle third of the line connecting the navel and the superior anterior iliac spine (Fig. 15.27). First, the skin, subcutaneous fatty tissue, superficial fascia and aponeurosis of the external oblique muscle of the abdomen are dissected with a scalpel. Then, along the fibers, the internal oblique and transverse abdominal muscles are bred in a blunt way (the muscles cannot be crossed with a scalpel due to the subsequent violation of the blood supply to them). Next, the transverse fascia of the abdomen, the parietal peritoneum are cut with a scalpel and enter the abdominal cavity. The dome of the caecum is brought into the wound along with the appendix. hallmark caecum from the ileum is the presence of fatty processes, swellings and longitudinal muscle bands, while it must be remembered that all three bands converge at the base of the appendix, which can serve as a guide for its detection. The assistant fixes the caecum, the surgeon near the end of the process

Rice. 15.27.Oblique incision for appendectomy:

1 - external oblique muscle of the abdomen; 2 - internal oblique muscle of the abdomen; 3 - transverse abdominal muscle; 4 - peritoneum

puts a clamp on his mesentery and lifts him up. Next, a hemostatic clamp is applied to the mesentery, and it is cut off. Under the clamps bandage the stump of the mesentery of the appendix. The cutting and ligation of the mesentery must be carefully performed to avoid severe bleeding from the mesenteric stump.

The next step is manipulation on the process itself. Holding it by the remainder of the mesentery in the region of the tip, a purse-string seromuscular suture is applied to the caecum around the base of the process. When applying it, it is necessary to ensure that the needle shines through the serous membrane all the time in order to avoid damage to the wall of the caecum. The purse-string suture is not temporarily tightened. Next, on the base of the appendix impose

a clamp under which the appendix is ​​tightly tied with a ligature. Then the process is cut off, and its stump is treated with iodine. Holding the stump with anatomical tweezers, the surgeon immerses it in the direction of the caecum, at the same time completely tightening the purse-string suture. After tying it, the stump should be completely immersed in it. A Z-shaped serous-muscular suture is applied over the purse-string suture for strengthening.

Then the abdominal cavity is thoroughly drained, and hemostasis is monitored. If necessary, drains are installed. The surgical wound is sutured in layers with catgut: first, the peritoneum, then the muscle layers, then the aponeurosis of the external oblique muscle of the abdomen and subcutaneous adipose tissue. The last row of sutures is applied to the skin using silk.

15.21. KIDNEY OPERATIONS

Operations on the organs of the urinary system are diverse and are singled out as a separate branch of medicine - urology. Distinctive features of operations on the organs of the retroperitoneal space are the presence of special surgical instruments, the use of mainly extraperitoneal accesses, and, more recently, the use of high-tech methods of operation. Modern technologies make it possible to use minimally invasive approaches, microsurgical techniques, endovideosurgical and retroperitoneoscopic methods in urology.

Nephrotomy- dissection of the kidney.

Indications for surgery are foreign bodies of the kidney, blind wound canals, kidney stones if they cannot be removed through the pelvis.

Operation technique (Fig. 15.28). One of the accesses exposes the kidney, takes it into the wound. Next, the kidney is fixed and the fibrous capsule and parenchyma are dissected. After extraction foreign body the kidney is sutured in such a way that they do not damage the pelvicalyceal system.

Nephrostomy- the imposition of an artificial fistula between the lumen of the pelvis and the external environment.

Indication for surgery: mechanical obstructions at the level of the ureter that cannot be removed in any other way.

The technique of the operation consists in exposing the kidney, performing a nephrotomy, dissecting the pelvis. Next, the drainage tube is fixed with a purse-string suture and brought out.

Kidney resection- removal of part of the kidney. Kidney resection refers to organ-preserving operations, therefore testimony for it are processes that capture part of the organ, for example, tuberculosis, the initial stage of a kidney tumor, echinococcus, kidney injury, and more.

According to the technique of performing resections, they are divided into anatomical (removal of a segment, two segments) and non-anatomical (wedge-shaped, marginal, etc.). The steps for performing the operation are as follows. After the kidney is exposed, the renal pedicle is clamped, then the affected area is excised within healthy tissues. The wound surface is sutured by suturing or plasty with a flap on a vascular pedicle. The renal bed is drained and the surgical wound is sutured in layers.

Rice. 15.28.Right-sided nephrectomy: stage of ligation and transection of the renal pedicle

Nephrectomy- kidney removal. Indications for nephrectomy are a malignant tumor, crushing of the kidney, hydronephrosis, etc. Special attention should be paid to the functional state of the second kidney; without her examination, the operation is not carried out.

Operation technique (Fig. 15.28). One of the accesses exposes the kidney, dislocates it into the wound. Next, a key stage of the operation is carried out: the treatment of the renal pedicle. Initially, the ureter is treated, tying it between two ligatures, the stump is cauterized with an antiseptic solution. Then proceed to the ligation of the renal artery and renal vein. After making sure that the ligatures are reliable, the vessels are crossed and the kidney is removed. The wound is drained and sutured in layers.

Nephropexy- fixation of the kidney when it is lowered. The indication for nephropexy is the omission of the kidney, in which there is an inflection of the vascular pedicle and a violation of its blood supply. Currently, many ways of fixing the kidney have been described. For example, the kidney is fixed to the overlying rib with ligatures, there are methods for cutting out a fascial and muscle flap, with which the organ is fixed in the muscle bed. Unfortunately, all these methods often lead to relapses.

15.22. TESTS

15.1. The anterolateral wall of the abdomen is separated by horizontal and vertical lines:

1. For 8 areas.

2. For 9 regions.

3. For 10 areas.

4. For 11 regions.

5. For 12 areas.

15.2. Performing a median laparotomy in the epigastrium, the surgeon sequentially dissects the layers of the anterior abdominal wall. Determine the sequence of cutting layers:

1. White line of the abdomen.

2. Skin with subcutaneous fat.

3. Parietal peritoneum.

4. Superficial fascia.

5. Transverse fascia.

6. Preperitoneal tissue.

7. Own fascia.

15.3. The median vesico-umbilical fold formed as a result of fetal development is:

1. Obliterated umbilical artery.

2. Obliterated umbilical vein.

3. Obliterated urinary duct.

4. Deferent duct.

15.4. In the right hypochondrium, 3 of the listed organs or their parts are usually projected:

1. Part of the right lobe of the liver.

2. Spleen.

3. Part of the right kidney.

4. Tail of the pancreas.

5. Right flexure of the colon.

6. Gallbladder.

15.5. The duodenum is projected onto the anterolateral abdominal wall in the following areas:

1. In the right and left side.

2. In the umbilical and proper epigastric.

3. In the proper epigastric and left lateral.

4. In the proper epigastric right lateral.

5. In the umbilical and right lateral.

15.6. In the inguinal canal can be distinguished:

1. 3 walls and 3 holes.

2. 4 walls and 4 holes.

3. 4 walls and 2 holes.

4. 2 walls and 4 holes.

5. 4 walls and 3 holes.

15.7. The lower wall of the inguinal canal is formed by:

1. The lower edges of the internal oblique and transverse muscles.

2. Inguinal ligament.

3. Comb fascia.

4. Parietal peritoneum.

5. Aponeurosis of the external oblique muscle of the abdomen.

15.8. When plastic surgery of the inguinal canal in a patient with an oblique inguinal hernia, the surgeon's actions are aimed at strengthening:

15.9. When plastic surgery of the inguinal canal in a patient with a direct inguinal hernia, the actions of the surgeon are aimed at strengthening:

1. The upper wall of the inguinal canal.

2. Anterior wall of the inguinal canal.

3. Posterior wall of the inguinal canal.

4. The lower wall of the inguinal canal.

15.10. When performing a median laparotomy:

1. The navel is bypassed on the right.

2. The navel is bypassed on the left.

3. The navel is dissected along.

4. The navel is cut across.

5. The choice of side does not matter.

15.11. One of the symptoms observed in a number of diseases accompanied by stagnation in the portal vein system is the expansion of the saphenous veins in the umbilical region of the anterior abdominal wall. This is due to the presence here:

1. Arteriovenous shunts.

2. Cavo-caval anastomoses.

3. Lymphatic venous anastomoses.

4. Portocaval anastomoses.

15.12. The superior and inferior epigastric arteries with their accompanying veins of the same name are located:

1. In the subcutaneous adipose tissue.

2. In the vagina of the rectus abdominis muscles in front of the muscles.

3. In the vagina of the rectus abdominis muscles behind the muscles.

4. In the preperitoneal tissue.

15.13. The upper and lower floors of the abdominal cavity are separated by:

1. Big omentum.

2. Gastrocolic ligament.

3. Mesentery of the transverse colon.

4. Mesentery of the small intestine.

15.14. The organs of the upper floor of the abdominal cavity include 4 of the following:

2. Stomach.

4. Liver with gallbladder.

5. Pancreas.

6. Spleen.

8. Sigmoid colon.

15.15. The organs of the lower floor of the abdominal cavity include 5 of the following:

1. Ascending colon.

2. Stomach.

3. Descending colon.

4. Liver with gallbladder.

5. Pancreas.

6. Spleen.

7. Caecum with appendix.

8. Sigmoid colon.

9. Skinny and ileum.

15.16. Set the boundaries of the liver bag.

1. Top.

2. Front.

3. Behind.

4. Bottom.

5. Right.

6. Left.

A. Side wall belly. B. Coronary ligament of the liver.

B. Anterior abdominal wall.

D. Transverse colon. D. The right dome of the diaphragm. E. Costal arch. G. Falciform ligament of the liver.

15.17. Establish the boundaries of the pancreatic sac.

1. Top.

2. Bottom.

3. Front.

4. Behind.

5. Right.

6. Left.

A. Lateral wall of the abdomen. B. The left dome of the diaphragm.

B. Stomach.

G. Small omentum. D. Anterior abdominal wall. E. Transverse colon. G. Falciform ligament of the liver.

15.18. The small omentum consists of 3 ligaments of the following:

1. Diaphragmatic-gastric ligament.

2. Gastro-splenic ligament.

3. Gastrocolic ligament.

4. Hepatoduodenal ligament.

5. Hepatogastric ligament.

15.19. Install the stuffing box walls:

1. Top.

2. Bottom.

3. Front.

4. Back.

A. Mesentery of the transverse colon. B. Stomach.

B. Gastrocolic ligament. G. Small omentum.

D. Posterior leaf of the parietal peritoneum. E. Transverse colon. G. Caudate lobe of the liver.

15.20. Of the 4 peritoneal formations of the lower floor of the abdominal cavity, they freely communicate with the peritoneal bags of the upper floor:

1. Left mesenteric sinus.

2. Left side channel.

3. Right mesenteric sinus.

4. Right side channel.

15.21. The stomach is supplied with blood by arteries that branch off:

1. Only from the celiac trunk.

2. From the celiac trunk and superior mesenteric artery.

3. Only from the superior mesenteric artery.

15.22. Gastrostomy is:

1. Introduction of the probe into the lumen of the stomach.

2. The imposition of an artificial external fistula on the stomach.

3. Formation of the gastrointestinal anastomosis.

4. Dissection of the stomach wall to remove a foreign body, followed by suturing the wound.

5. Removal of part of the stomach.

15.23. Gastropexy is:

1. Stitching sections of the stomach wall around the tube during gastrostomy.

2. There is no such term.

3. This is the name of the dissection of the wall of the stomach.

4. Fixation of the stomach to the parietal peritoneum with several sutures to isolate the peritoneal cavity from the contents of the stomach.

5. Dissection of the muscle sphincter in the region of the pylorus.

15.24. Total vagotomy involves:

1. Crossing the trunk of the left vagus nerve above the diaphragm.

2. The intersection of the trunks of the left and right vagus nerves immediately below the diaphragm.

3. Crossing the trunk of the left vagus nerve immediately below the diaphragm.

4. Crossing the trunk of the left vagus nerve below the origin of its hepatic branch.

5. The intersection of the branches of the left vagus nerve, extending to the body of the stomach.

15.25. Selective vagotomy involves:

1. Crossing the trunk of the left vagus nerve below the origin of its hepatic branch.

2. The intersection of the branches of the left vagus nerve, extending to the body of the stomach.

3. Crossing the branches of the left vagus nerve, extending to the bottom and body of the stomach.

4. Crossing the trunk of the left vagus nerve above the origin of its hepatic branch.

5. None of the options.

15.26. In the liver secrete:

1. 7 segments.

2. 8 segments.

3. 9 segments.

4. 10 segments.

15.27. During cholecystectomy, the cystic artery is determined at the base of the Calot triangle, the lateral sides of which are two anatomical formations from the following:

1. Common bile duct.

2. Common hepatic duct.

3. Right hepatic duct.

4. Cystic duct.

5. Own hepatic artery.

15.28. Determine the sequence of parts of the common bile duct:

1. Duodenal part.

2. Supraduodenal part.

3. Pancreatic part.

4. Retroduodenal part.

15.29. The relative position in the hepatoduodenal ligament of the common bile duct, own hepatic artery and portal vein is as follows:

1. Artery along the free edge of the ligament, duct to the left, vein between them and posteriorly.

2. The duct along the free edge of the ligament, the artery to the left, the vein between them and posteriorly.

3. Vein along the free edge of the ligament, artery to the left, duct between them and posteriorly.

4. The duct along the free edge of the ligament, the vein to the left, the artery between them and backwards.

15.30. The celiac trunk is usually divided into:

1. Left gastric artery.

2. Superior mesenteric artery.

3. Inferior mesenteric artery.

4. Splenic artery.

5. Common hepatic artery.

6. Gallbladder artery.

15.31. Drains into the portal vein deoxygenated blood from 5 of the following:

1. Stomach.

2. Adrenals.

3. Colon.

4. Liver.

5. Pancreas.

6. Kidneys.

7. Spleen.

8. Small intestine.

15.32. Venous blood flows into the inferior vena cava from 3 of the following organs:

1. Stomach.

2. Adrenals.

3. Colon.

4. Liver.

5. Pancreas.

6. Kidneys.

7. Spleen.

8. Small intestine.

15.33. From 4 external differences colon from small intestine the most reliable sign is:

1. The location of the longitudinal muscles of the large intestine in the form of three ribbons.

2. The presence of gaustra and circular furrows in the colon.

3. The presence of fatty appendages in the colon.

4. Greyish-blue color of the large intestine and light pink color of the small intestine.

15.34. The blood supply of the caecum is carried out from the pool of the artery:

1. Superior mesenteric.

2. Inferior mesenteric.

3. External iliac.

4. Internal iliac.

5. General hepatic.

15.35. Venous outflow from the caecum is carried out into the vein system:

1. Bottom hollow.

2. Top hollow.

3. Bottom and top hollow.

4. Gate.

5. Gate and bottom hollow.

15.36. Features that determine the differences between operations on the large intestine from operations on the small intestine are that:

1. The large intestine has a thicker wall than the small intestine.

2. The large intestine has a thinner wall than the small intestine.

3. The small intestine has more infected contents than the large intestine.

4. The large intestine has more infected contents than the small intestine.

5. Unevenly distributed muscle fibers in the wall of the colon.

15.37. In the retroperitoneal space between the intra-abdominal and retroperitoneal fascia are:

1. Retroperitoneal cellular layer.

2. Colonic fiber.

3. Perirenal fiber.

15.38. The pericolic tissue is located between:

1. Ascending or descending colon and posterior colon fascia.

2. Posterior colonic and anterior renal fascia.

3. Posterior colonic and intra-abdominal fascia.

15.39. Perirenal tissue is located around the kidney:

1. Under the fibrous capsule of the kidney.

2. Between the fibrous and fascial capsule.

3. Over the fascial capsule of the kidney.

15.40. The renal arteries arise from the abdominal aorta at the level of:

15.41. Determine the order of the three kidney capsules, starting from its parenchyma:

1. Fat capsule.

2. Fascial capsule.

3. Fibrous capsule.

15.42. In relation to the spine, the left kidney is located at the level of:

15.43. In relation to the spine, the right kidney is located at the level of:

15.44. In front of the left kidney are 4 organs of the following:

1. Liver.

2. Stomach.

3. Pancreas.

4. Duodenum.

5. Loops of the small intestine.

7. Splenic flexure of the colon.

15.45. In front of the right kidney are 3 of the following organs:

1. Liver.

2. Stomach.

3. Pancreas.

4. Duodenum.

5. Loops of the small intestine.

6. Ascending colon.

15.46. The elements of the renal pedicle are located in the direction from front to back in the following sequence:

1. Renal artery, renal vein, pelvis.

2. Renal vein, renal artery, pelvis.

3. Lohanka, renal vein, renal artery.

4. Lohanka, renal artery, renal vein.

15.47. The basis for the allocation of segments of the kidney are:

1. Branching of the renal artery.

2. Formation of the renal vein.

3. Location of small and large renal calyces.

4. Location of the renal pyramids.

15.48. The ureter along its course has:

1. One constriction.

2. Two restrictions.

3. Three restrictions.

4. Four restrictions.

15.49. The anterior and posterior boundaries of the retroperitoneal space are:

1. Parietal peritoneum.

2. Fascia endoabdominalis.

The human body is a complex mechanism, all elements of which are in close interaction and occupy a certain place in it. The study of the location of the internal organs of a person allows us to understand the basics of the functioning of the body, to establish its vulnerable and important areas, to diagnose a disease by localizing its manifestations, and in an emergency to provide first aid.

Human Anatomy: Photo with Captions

The study of the structure and functions of the human body deals with anatomy - a branch of biology. The sciences of the insides of the body and their placement are splanchnology and topography.

It is customary to distinguish the structure of the body:

• External- accessible to visual observation. It includes the head, neck, torso, legs, arms, and so on;
• Internal- hidden from view. This structure includes the stomach, brain, liver, intestines and others.

The main organs are shown in the figure. Each of them occupies a certain place and performs its functions.

It is advisable to study the human structure in different projections. Below is a photo from detailed list bodies with signatures in Russian for front and back review.

The liver, stomach, intestines, bladder, thyroid gland are best visualized in the anterior part of the body. The kidneys, pelvic bones, shoulder blades, spine are to be examined from the back. This is taken into account when conducting diagnostic studies.

The structure of the internal organs of the body is usually divided into cavities:

• thoracic, including pleural and pericardial regions;
• abdominal;
• pelvic.

The first is separated from the second by the diaphragm, which performs respiratory and support functions. The organs of the head are located in the cranial cavity. The spinal canal contains the spinal cord and nerve roots.

Depending on the purpose, the totality of human organs forms systems. The main ones are presented in the table, each is responsible for a specific function, and also interacts with others.

The following systems are distinguished in the body:

They study live the location of organs during anatomy - cutting a dead body.

What organs are on the right

To determine how the body works, what and where it is, it is recommended to use the anatomical atlas.

On the right side of the body are:

• part of the diaphragm
• right lung;
• liver - its right lobe and part of the left, lying "under cover" of the diaphragm;
• gallbladder and ducts;
• right kidney with adrenal gland;
• part of the intestine - the duodenum, ileum and caecum with an appendix;
• bladder - located closer to the center of the lower abdomen;
• pancreas - its head is located on the right;
• right ovary and fallopian tube in women.

What organs are on the left

On the anatomical map, you can see what parts of the body are on the left side, and how they are located relative to each other.

In this area are:

• left lung;
• part of the diaphragm
• the heart is tilted back and to the left, the position of the organ is behind the lungs;
• stomach;
• spleen;
• pancreas;
• left kidney with adrenal gland;
• intestine - part of the small, transverse and descending large, sigmoid colon;
• ureter;
• left ovary and fallopian tube in women.

Skeleton

The musculoskeletal system acts as a support and protection for soft tissues, provides movement. The skeleton is its passive part, an element of muscle application, while each bone is considered a separate organ. It includes the skull, chest, spinal column, belt of the upper and lower extremities, and directly the arms and legs.

The picture shows a skeleton full height with the names of the main bones. In total, there are up to 207 of them in the body of adults.

Bones are held together and movable by joints, ligaments, and other connections.

The purpose of the skeleton is to support, move and protect, to participate in hematopoietic processes and metabolism. The latter is due to the content of bone marrow in the bones.

The structure of the bone is shown in the figure.

Bone tissue is formed from compact and spongy substances. The ratio of their content varies. The predominantly compact substance makes up 80% of the bone mass. This outer layer is characterized by density and includes nerves, vessels, bone cells.

The spongy substance makes up 20% of the mass of the skeleton. The porous layer forms a lattice structure, which is necessary for the storage of bone marrow and fat reserves.

Bones are united and gain mobility with the help of joints, ligaments, cartilage.

The location of the main joints is shown in the figure.

These elements are comparable to hinges that ensure smooth sliding of bones due to the content of a specific lubricant - synovial fluid, which prevents their destruction. Joints can be fixed (fixed), partially movable (semi-joints) and movable (true), have the shape of an ellipse, cylinder, ball.

Articulations ensure the movement of the body in space and its individual parts relative to each other, maintaining a stable posture.

The knee joint with indication of the location of the ligaments and cartilage is shown in the picture.

Cartilage performs the function of a shock absorber, prevents abrasion of bone tissue. Ligaments connect bones, support muscles, fascia, they are elastic and flexible.

Head

This part of the body is recognized as the main one, since it contains the control center of the body - the brain. The skull serves as his protection. The main sense organs are located in the front of the head: sight, hearing, smell, taste.

Scull

The figure shows the bones that form the human skull.

The body consists of 2 departments:

• Brain formed by 8 bones. Upper region called the vault, the lower one - the base of the skull, which are separated by a conditional line from the occipital part towards the frontal above the ear and along the infraorbital border;
• Facial, formed from 15 paired and unpaired bones. In this area are the eye sockets, oral, nasal, tympanic cavities (the organ of hearing is located here). The only movable bone is the mandibular bone, to which the masticatory muscles are attached.

Ears

The paired organ of hearing is located in the temporal part of the head, is attached to it with the help of rudimentary muscles and is responsible for the transmission sound waves regulates the balance and coordination of human movements.

The picture shows a schematic structure of its main departments:

• outdoor, which includes the auricle, which captures sound, and the external auditory meatus, which contains the sebaceous and sulfuric glands.
• Medium, represented by the tympanic cavity and eustachian tube connecting the department with the nasopharynx.
• Inner ear (membranous labyrinth)- includes vestibule, cochlea and semicircular canals filled with fluid. This section contains the vestibular system responsible for balance and acceleration.

The device of the organ of hearing begins with an externally visible shell and ends in the cranium. A person hears at the moment the sound reaches the eardrum, the vibrations of which set in motion small bones - the anvil, hammer and stirrup. The waves are then transmitted to a special fluid in the inner ear, which is signaled by the auditory nerve to the brain.

Eyes

A visual drawing depicts the physiological structure of the organ of vision - a kind of optical apparatus of the body.

The eyes are located in the anterior region of the head eye sockets skull and together with the eyelids, eyebrows, eyelashes are part of the facial section.

The body has the main components: eyeball and the optic nerve, as well as auxiliary: eyelids, lacrimal apparatus, muscles that provide rotation. The posterior region of the eyelids and the anterior apple are covered by a mucous membrane - the conjunctiva.

The detailed structure of the eye is shown in the picture.

Light from an object that a person sees passes through the cornea and pupil into the lens. In this case, the rays are refracted, and an inverted image appears on the retina of the eye. Next, the impulses optic nerve enter the brain, as a result, the appearance of the normal position of the object is restored.

The three-dimensional 3D image is provided by the interaction of both eyes. They transmit the view of their half of the object to the brain, which connects the received parts.

Nose

The olfactory organ is located in front of the head, its anatomy includes the following components: the external section and the nasal cavity. The external visible part consists of 2 bones that form the back of the nose and cartilages that form its wings and tip.

The nasal cavity has upper, middle and lower passages.

It is symmetrically divided by a partition into 2 halves. In front, through the external nose, it communicates with the atmosphere, behind - with the pharynx.

The purpose of the organ is the delivery of purified, warmed and humidified air to the lungs, as well as in the perception and recognition of odors.

The mucous membrane is intended for mechanical processing of the air flow. Its ciliated epithelium has a cleansing effect, retaining and expelling dust particles. Mucous glands contribute to air humidification, a rich venous network has a warming effect.

Additional ventilation is provided by the paranasal sinuses located around the cavity of the olfactory organ. They are also covered with a mucous membrane. 4 pairs of paranasal sinuses are schematically shown in the figure.

Aromatic particles, getting into the nose, have an irritating effect on the olfactory nerves. Through them, signals enter the brain, which recognizes smells - this is how the function of smell is carried out.

Mouth

The oral cavity is considered the beginning of the digestive tract.

Its structure includes gums, teeth, palate, salivary glands and tongue. Lips formed by skin-muscle folds are considered a kind of entrance. Their increased sensitivity is due to an extensive network of nerves.

The salivary glands of the oral cavity are:

• sublingual;
• submandibular;
• parotid.

Due to the production of mucus, they provide a constant moisture environment. Saliva has an antiseptic effect, contributes to the sensation of taste, wetting the kidneys of the tongue.

The oral cavity is involved in 2 functions of the body: digestive and respiratory, and is also associated with human speech. The teeth mechanically process incoming food, the hard palate helps to soften and mix it, the soft palate prevents it from entering the nasal cavity.

From the center of the latter comes the so-called "third tonsil", the purpose of which is unknown. However, it is believed that it acts as a kind of shutter of the respiratory tract, preventing a person from suffocating when swallowing.

The tongue is an organ of taste with many receptor papillae. The figure shows its structure with a description and indication of the areas responsible for taste and temperature perception.

Leather

The outer cover is considered the most extensive organ of the human body. The structure of the skin in the section is shown in the figure.

The integument consists of the epidermis, dermis and hypodermis (subcutaneous fat).

Sweat and sebaceous glands are considered appendages. hair follicles, nails. Blood and lymphatic vessels, nerve fibers are also found in the dermis and subcutaneous tissue.

The main function of the skin is considered protective. She resists harmful effects environment, protect the body from pathogenic microflora, damage.

The skin is involved in metabolic processes, removes unnecessary substances from the body, and regulates body temperature. The dermis carries out about 2% of gas exchange in tissues.

The skin is an organ of touch, through nerve endings, impulses are transmitted to the brain, forming the perception of an object when touched.

Nervous system

The figure shows a structured description of the components of the human nervous system that regulates the functioning of all organs of the human body. It combines sensitivity, motor activity, the activity of other regulatory mechanisms (immune, endocrine).

It is classified into:

• Central including the brain and spinal cord. It is the basis that has the main function - the implementation of reflexes. The brain controls the work of individual organs, systems, ensures their connection with each other and well-coordinated work. Higher department - bark hemispheres and subcortical formations carry out a holistic interaction of the body with the outside world.
• peripheral, which includes the cranial and spinal nerves and nerve nodes. Connects the central system with the organs. It is not protected by bone tissue, therefore it is prone to damage. functional peripheral system is divided into somatic, regulating the muscular activity of the skeleton, and vegetative, responsible for the functioning of organs. The latter is classified into sympathetic, which forms a response to stress, causing tachycardia, an increase in pressure, and so on, and parasympathetic, which controls the mechanisms of relaxation, a state of rest.

Brain

The organ is located in the cranium and is the control center of the body. The brain is made up of many nerve cells and branches connected to each other.

The structure of the body has 5 departments:

• medulla;
• average;
• intermediate;
• posterior - unites the cerebellum and the bridge;
• cerebral hemispheres (forebrain).

The cerebral cortex, which occupies an area of ​​about 4 square meters, is responsible for higher nervous activity.

At the same time, the furrows and gyrus divide the organ into lobes, shown in the figure:

• frontal- determines the control of human behavior, movement, speech;
• parietal- forms the majority of sensations, analyzes information, is responsible for the ability to read, write, count;
• temporal- carries out the perception of sounds;
• occipital- responsible for visual function.

The surface of the brain is covered with 3 types of membranes:

• Soft (vascular)- Adheres to the medulla, enveloping the gyrus and entering the furrows. The vascular network feeds the organ.
• gossamer- has no vessels. Does not enter the furrows, these areas between the meninges and arachnoid are filled with cerebrospinal fluid.
• solid- periosteum for the inner surface of the skull. The shell is distinguished by a high concentration of pain receptors.

Spinal cord

The organ of the central nervous system is located in the spinal canal. What the spinal cord looks like, its location and structure are shown in the figure.

It is divided into right and left parts and has hard, soft and arachnoid. Between the last 2 there is a space filled with cerebrospinal fluid from the inside.

In the central part of the organ, gray matter is found, formed from neurons and surrounded by white. Its length is 50 centimeters, width is not more than 10 millimeters. The structure of the organ in section is shown in the picture.

The spinal cord is characterized by a direct connection and interaction with organs, skin, muscles.

There are reflex functions of the organ, responsible for motor activity, and conductive, which consist in the transmission of impulses.

Nerves

Nerves are structural units of the nervous system, formed from a plexus of bundles of nerve fibers (long processes of neurons). The picture shows the structure of the organ and its purpose is determined.

Nerves transmit impulses from the brain and spinal cord to organs. Their combination forms the peripheral system.

Nerves have different thickness. This is due to the number and caliber of the beams that formed it. Large ones are called stems. Departing from the brain, they form an extensive network, in organs and tissues they are represented by separate fibers, the endings of which are nerve endings. The map shows the location of the nerves in the human body.

As you can see, they permeate almost the entire body and connect organs and parts into a single mechanism.

chest cavity

The following organs are located in the chest area:

• respiration (lungs, trachea, bronchi);
• a heart;
• esophagus;
• diaphragm;
• thymus gland (thymus).

A heart

The main organ of the circulatory system is located between the lungs to the left of the center line of the chest. An oblique presentation of the heart is noted - the wide part is located higher, deflected back and to the right, narrow - directed to the left and down.

The heart contains 4 chambers separated by septa and valves. Due to constant rhythmic contractions, the organ pumps blood and participates in its processing, promotes the spread biological fluid on the body.

Venous blood from the superior and inferior vena cava enters the right atrium, then the right ventricle. Then, through the pulmonary trunk, it enters the lungs, where it is converted into an arterial one. Then the blood returns to the heart, left atrium and ventricle, enters the aorta and spreads throughout the body.

The regulation of the work of the heart is carried out by receptors present in its cavity and large vessels. Impulses from the medulla oblongata and spinal cord cause reflex activity of the organ, taking into account the needs of the body. At the same time, parasympathetic nerves transmit signals that reduce the number of heart contractions, sympathetic - increase.

Lungs

The largest organ respiratory system, which occupies 2/3 of the chest. The lungs rest on the diaphragm and are directed to the area above the clavicle. Their surface facing the ribs is convex, towards the heart is concave.

The sizes of paired organs are constantly changing and depend on the depth and phase of respiration.

The left and right lungs differ in structure. The first contains 2 lobes: upper and lower. The right one has an additional third, middle one. The shares are divided into segments and labulas. Covers the respiratory organ and the wall of the chest cavity serous membrane - pleura.

Trachea

The organ is located between the bronchi and the larynx, acts as a continuation of the latter. It carries air into the lungs.

It is a semicircular formation of cartilaginous tissue, formed in the form of a tube, originating at level 6 cervical vertebra. A third of the organ lies in the region of the cervical spine, the rest is in the chest cavity. The trachea is also called the "windpipe".

The organ is covered by a mucous membrane, the back wall is formed from connective tissue with a smooth muscle structure. This helps the passage of food through the esophagus, located behind the trachea. The part of the thyroid gland is placed in front.

Bronchi

A paired respiratory organ in the form of tubular processes of the trachea, which branch out in the lungs, forming their skeleton or bronchial tree.

The functions of the bronchi are to conduct air, warm it, moisten it and purify it from dust, microorganisms, and harmful substances. Each of them enters the lungs with blood vessels and passes into the bronchioles. These terminal branches terminate in alveoli where gas exchange takes place.

The bronchi are covered with a mucous membrane from the inside, their walls have a cartilaginous structure. The branched tree is supplied with lymph nodes and nerves.

Abdomen

The placement of organs in the peritoneal cavity is shown in the figure.

This area includes:

• stomach;
• pancreas;
• liver;
• gallbladder and ducts;
• intestines;
• spleen;
• kidneys and adrenals.

Stomach

The organ of the gastrointestinal tract is a continuation of the esophagus, from which it is separated by a valve. The stomach is located under the diaphragm and is displaced to the left side, in the region of the hypochondrium.

It has a bag-like appearance, the shape of the organ depends on the physique of a particular person.

The size of the stomach is constantly changing, as it fills with food, it stretches and puts pressure on the diaphragm and pancreas.

The purpose of the organ is the processing of food, the absorption of certain components (sugar, water, and others) and its further promotion into the intestinal tract. The chemical effect on food is carried out due to the juice secreted by the walls. The hydrochloric acid it contains has an antiseptic effect. noted endocrine function stomach, which consists in the production of hormones and biologically active substances.

Liver

It is considered the largest internal glandular organ in the human body. The liver lies on the right directly below the diaphragm. The organ consists of the right and left lobes.

The main cleansing function is due to the peculiarities of the blood circulation in it: blood from the intestinal tract, containing toxins, decay products, vital activity of microflora, is supplied through the portal vein to the liver, where detoxification takes place.

Further, the vessel branches. Oxygen-rich blood enters the liver through the hepatic artery, which also branches. As a result, blood enters the sinusoids through the interlobular veins and arteries, while the mixed biological fluid flows into the central vein, then into the hepatic and inferior vena cava.

The functions of the body include cleansing the body of toxins, excesses of bioactive substances (hormones, vitamins), regulation of metabolic processes, including lipid, synthesis of bile acids, bilirubin, hormones. The liver is a depot for blood, replenishing supplies in case of blood loss.

Gallbladder and ducts

The organ is located in the lower part of the liver along the right furrow and acts as a reservoir for incoming bile.

It consists of a neck, bottom and body. The shape of the bubble resembles a pear the size of a chicken egg. The organ has upper and lower walls, one of them is adjacent to the liver, the other looks into the abdominal cavity. The fundus communicates with the duodenum and the transverse colon. The fluid accumulated in the body through the bile ducts enters the intestines.

The bubble is mobile and able to twist, as a result, its necrosis is possible. There is a doubling of the organ, an abnormal position in the abdominal cavity, including intrahepatic.

Pancreas

A complete description of the structure and location of the organ is shown in the figure.

It has the functions of internal and external secretion. The gland releases the hormones insulin and glucagon into the bloodstream. It is involved in the production of enzymes (trypsin, chymotrypsin, lipase, amylase) for the digestion of food and in metabolism: carbohydrate, protein, fat.

Pancreatic juice is stored in the interlobular ducts, which join with the main excretory duct, which exits into the duodenum.

Spleen

The oval-shaped organ lies in the left side next to the stomach. It is in contact with the colon, pancreas, left kidney and diaphragm. Sometimes there is an additional lobule of the organ, without showing itself in any way. The spleen is able to change, depending on the accumulated blood.

The picture shows the structure and functions of the organ.

The spleen is responsible for the processes of hematopoiesis and immune defense occurring in the body: it accumulates blood, destroys damaged cells of the biological fluid (erythrocytes, platelets) and foreign agents, deposits iron.

Intestines

Recognized as the longest organ, consisting of the small and large intestines. Located in the lower abdomen.

The tube-shaped organ, in which the necessary substances are absorbed and unnecessary and harmful are removed, gradually passes from right to left from its thin part to the thick one and ends with the anus.

The main purpose of the intestine is the processing and absorption of nutrients, since it is the final destination of the digestive system.

Also marked excretory, immune, secretory functions. The intestine prevents the development of pathogenic microflora, produces immunoglobulins, T-lymphocytes, hormones and vitamins.

Appendix

It is a process of the caecum, located on the right side in the iliac region, descending to the entrance to the small pelvis. An opening of the organ with a mucous flap opens into the caecum. In this case, partial or complete overgrowth of the lumen is characteristic.

It is not considered a vital organ, but it performs a protective function, preserves beneficial microflora, is considered an E. coli incubator, contains clusters of lymphoid follicles, and is part of the immune system.

With inflammation, the appendix must be urgently removed.

kidneys

Paired organs of the excretory system are located in the lumbar region behind the peritoneum at the level of the 12th rib. In this case, the right kidney is located slightly lower than the left. Organs are covered with a fibrous membrane.

The anatomy of the kidneys is shown in the figure.

The inner part of the organ forms a kind of gate through which the vessels, nerves, and ureter pass. The latter departs from the pelvis and the distal end is sent to the bladder. Organs regulate chemical homeostasis, are responsible for urination, and regulate blood pressure. Like the liver, the kidneys are considered a kind of body filter.

adrenal glands

Paired glands of the endocrine system are located in the upper part of the kidneys and consist of cortex and medulla.

Organs regulate metabolism, produce hormones (adrenaline, norepinephrine, aldosterone, corticosterone, and so on), help the body adapt to adverse living conditions and stress.

Organ dysfunctions lead to severe pathologies.

The adrenal glands are able to increase in size during a prolonged stressful situation, exhaustion is possible when they become unable to produce hormones.

Organs of the large and small pelvis

The pelvis refers to the lower part of the body. This area is formed by 2 pelvic bones, the sacrum and the coccyx. The large pelvis is limited from the front by the peritoneal septum, from the back - by the spine, from the sides - by parts of the ilium. The small one runs from the pubis, ends with the sacrum and coccyx, on the side - with the bones of the seat.

The internal organs of the region include the intestines, bladder, ureter, genitals.

Bladder

The organ is located in the lower part of the pelvic area behind the pubis.

The figure clearly shows the structure of the bladder, which is a reservoir for the accumulation of urine, which is periodically excreted from the body.

The organ is elastic, able to shrink or stretch, when filled with liquid, it grows upward, touching the abdominal wall.

The ureters flow into its middle part on both sides, the lower region forms the neck, narrows and passes into the urethra. Here is located internal sphincter preventing involuntary urination.

Ureters

The organ is located above the bladder and connects it to the kidney.

The ureter has a tubular structure and is designed to pass urine due to the contractile movements of its segments. This is due to the presence of a muscle layer in the outer wall.

From the inside, the organ is covered with a mucous membrane. The ureters have mechanisms that prevent reflux (reverse reflux) of bladder contents.

Rectum

The organ is the final part of the large intestine, located downward from the sigmoid to the anus. Located at level 3 of the sacral vertebrae.

In men, the rectum is adjacent to the bladder, prostate, seminal vesicles, in women - to the back wall of the vagina and uterus.

Food that is not digested in the small intestine and water enters the organ. There are also fiber, bile, salts, bacteria. In the rectum, the final breakdown of food takes place, the formation of feces with the help of digestive juice and its excretion.

genitourinary system

This system includes the urinary and reproductive organs of a person.

Common for men and women are:

• kidneys;
• ureters;
• bladder;
• urethra.

However, due to differences in the structure of the reproductive system of both sexes, the features of the structure and placement of organs, shown in the pictures below, are distinguished.

Men

The general structure of the genitourinary system is complemented by male organs:

• Prostate- The prostate gland, which is located below the bladder, its excretory ducts open into the urethra. The functions of the organ are to produce a secret (an integral part of the sperm) containing immunoglobulins, enzymes, vitamins, and so on. It is a valve that blocks the exit from the bladder during an erection.
• testicles- paired organs are presented in the scrotum and may differ in size, placed at different levels. They form spermatozoa - male germ cells and steroid hormones (mainly testosterone).
• vas deferens- a paired organ that connects the duct of the epididymis and the excretory duct of the seminal vesicle.
• Penis (penis)- an external organ of a man that performs urinary and reproductive functions.

Women

In this case, the general organs of the urogenital tract additionally include female organs:

• Uterus with appendages- carry out a reproductive function. The uterus is an organ with a smooth muscle structure and is located in the middle of the pelvic cavity. Consists of bottom, body and neck. Designed for carrying the fetus and its subsequent expulsion, participates in menstrual function, synthesis of prostaglandins, relaxin, sex hormones. The appendages are fallopian tubes connecting the ovaries to the uterus.
• ovaries- paired female organs, are the site of maturation of germ cells and are responsible for the production of hormones. Consist of connective tissue and cortical substance containing follicles in different stages development.
• Vagina- an internal tubular genital organ in women, located between the bladder in front and the rectum in the back. Carry out reproductive, protective, generic functions.

Digestive system

Includes organs of the gastrointestinal tract and auxiliary.

The first ones include:

• oral cavity;
• pharynx;
• esophagus;
• stomach;
• intestines.

Auxiliary organs of digestion that contribute to the digestion of food are:

• salivary glands;
• gallbladder;
• liver;
• pancreas and so on.

Circulation

Continuous blood flow in the body, providing organs and tissues with nutrition and oxygen and removing processed products from them, is carried out through a closed network of vessels.

In the human body, there are large and small circles of blood circulation. Their location, the structure of the arterial and venous systems is shown in the figure.

A small circle comes from the right ventricle: venous blood is ejected during contraction into the pulmonary trunk and follows into the lungs, where gas exchange (oxygen saturation) takes place. Arterial blood through the pulmonary veins is sent to the left atrium, closing the circle.

The systemic circulation originates in the left ventricle. During its contractions, arterial blood enters the aorta, arteries, arterioles, capillaries of the whole organism, giving nutrients, oxygen to the tissues and taking away metabolic products, carbon dioxide. Further, venous blood follows the venules and veins to the right atrium, closing the circle of blood circulation.

lymphatic system

It is considered a component of the cardiovascular system, is involved in metabolic processes and cleansing the body. Not closed and has no pump.

To lymphatic system relate:

• capillaries;
• vessels;
• nodes;
• trunks and channels.

glands

The endocrine system is responsible for the stability of the organs, regulates their work, growth and development.

The location of the main glands in men and women is shown in the figure:

• Thyroid produces hormones involved in metabolism, affecting growth, oxygen consumption (calcitonin, thyroxine, triiodothyronine).
• Parathyroid are responsible for the level of calcium in the body.
• thymus plays an important role in the immune system, producing T-lymphocytes and hormones (thymalin, thymosin and others).
• adrenal glands synthesize the hormone adrenaline, which triggers a response to external stress.
• Pancreas produces insulin, glucagon and enzymes for digestion of food.
• Sex glands (ovaries, testes) perform the function of reproduction.
• Pituitary and hypothalamus form the hypothalamic-pituitary system. The pituitary gland regulates the activity of the entire endocrine system, produces somatotropin.
• epiphysis counteracts growth hormones, slows down the progression of tumors, affects sexual development, controls the water balance in the body and the change in sleep phases, is responsible for muscle contractions.

muscles

The muscular system of the human body is a component of the musculoskeletal system. It sets in motion various parts of it, maintains posture, provides breathing, swallowing, and so on.

Muscles are formed from elastic and elastic tissue containing myocytes. Under the influence of signals given by the nervous system, they are reduced. However, fatigue is characteristic of the muscular system. The calf and masticatory muscles are the strongest, the gluteal muscles, which are responsible for leg movements, are the most extensive.

There are types of muscles:

• skeletal - attached to bones;
• smooth- presented in the walls of organs and vessels;
• cardiac- is located in the heart and is constantly reduced throughout life.

Anatomy of children

The structure of the body of the child has some features. The main difference from the adult organism is the smaller growth and size of the organs.

In boys and girls of adolescence, the structure gradually becomes identical to an adult.

Features of the body of children are shown in the figures below.

The skeleton of a newborn child has 270 bones, which is more than that of an adult (up to 207 bones). In the future, some of them are combined. Muscles are less developed than in adults. With age, they lengthen and thicken.

The location of the digestive organs does not have significant differences.

Pregnant woman

The physiology of the body of a girl during pregnancy changes significantly with the growth of the term. The size of the uterus increases, the main organs rise, the placental circulatory system is formed.

The mass of the heart muscle, the release of blood and its volume increase. There is an increase in lung capacity, their work is enhanced. The activity of the kidneys becomes tense, the tone of the bladder decreases. By turning to the right, the uterus can obstruct the flow of urine from the right kidney, increasing the risk of hydronephrosis.

Changes in the structure of the body of a pregnant woman are shown in the figure.

After childbirth, the organs take their former position.

Pictures of the human structure for children

To show the child what is inside the human body, you can use different methods. For kids, beautiful and colorful pictures organism.

It is advisable to use puzzles and coloring.

Older children will be interested in models and models with organs.

They look like a real human body, while they are prefabricated

Useful video

Organs in our body specialize in performing specific functional duties. Thus, they ensure the coordinated work of the whole organism. You will learn about the location of the organs from the pictures and descriptions in this article.

Digestive system

Good Digestion: What is it? Why is it important? How to get it?
Our digestive system is probably one of the most important. It plays a crucial role in our health and we really need to take care of it.

What is good digestion?

Food processing begins in the mouth. Our saliva contains enzymes that start the breakdown of certain carbohydrates and act as a food humectant to make swallowing easier.

• Food is digested in the stomach using enzymes and stomach acid. The acid activates pepsin, which breaks down protein and kills most bacteria.
• The small intestine is where nutrients and enzymes are absorbed, but the food has not yet been digested.
• The large intestine contains high levels of various digestive bacteria that help digest leftover food. Fatty acid are some by-products of digestion that provide energy for our intestinal cells.
• Trillions of bacteria live in our guts. They are critical for proper digestion.
• So why is good digestion so important?
• We now know what Hippocrates meant so many years ago that "disease begins in the intestines." Research into our microbiome shows that having too few bacteria (in number and variety) can not only affect digestion, but can also cause cancer, diabetes, heart disease, autism, depression, and obesity.

Many years ago, these diseases were rare, but now they are becoming more common.

Typical food now consists of highly processed foods: refined flour, white sugar, and animal protein from milk and meat loaded with antibiotics. These foods are not only low in nutrients, but also low in fiber.

These foods cause the intestines to lack the microbes needed for proper digestion and disease prevention. Even in situations where you feel like you're eating a lot of nutrients, an imbalanced gut flora can mean you're not absorbing all the nutrients your body needs.

Other lifestyle factors that can interfere with proper digestion are the use of oral antibiotics, chronic stress, lack of sleep, nutritional deficiencies (well fed but undernourished), certain medications, food allergies, and infections.

3 Things You Can Do Today to Get Started on the Path to Optimal Digestive Health

1 Eat a variety of fibers (40-60 grams per day). Different microbes like to feed on different fibers.

2 Include prebiotic foods in your diet every day. Prebiotics are slow digesting fibers that ferment in the large intestine (where most bacteria live). They act as food for microbes and all life on Earth needs food to survive, including microbes. Dr. Michael Plann suggests for their nutrition: “resistant starch (found in bananas, oats, legumes); (in onions and other root crops, nuts); and insoluble fiber (in whole grains, especially bran and avocado)."

3 Avoid unnecessary antibiotics. Talk to your doctor to find out how to take an antibiotic for your situation. Eat fermented food. Raw sauerkraut, kefir, kombucha, miso, tempeh, and beets all contain high amounts of probiotic bacteria. So the next time you sit down to eat, think about how your lifestyle is affecting your digestion.

Intestines

The ancient physician Galen described the intestines as a tube, the length of which varies with the age of the patient. In the Middle Ages, the intestines were considered the "seat" of digestion. But there was no information about the process of digestion. According to Leonardo da Vinci, the intestines were associated with the process of respiration. The English scientist William Harvey described the intestines as a tube made up of fibers, blood vessels, mesentery, mucus and fats that had an impact on the digestion process.

Intestine through a lens

The layers of the walls of the small and large intestines are the same: the mucous membrane is formed from the inside of the intestine, the middle layer forms the muscles, and the surface of the intestine is covered with connective tissue.

The main difference is observed in the structure of the mucous membrane. The mucous membrane of the small intestine consists of a huge number of small villi, and its cells produce gastric juice. After processing by the small intestine of food gruel created by gastric juices, all useful substances and elements are absorbed by the lymphatic and blood capillaries.

Comparative anatomy

The length of the intestine depends on the composition of the food. Therefore, ruminants, which have to process complex plant foods, have much larger intestines than carnivores. For example, the intestines of a bull are about 20 times longer than its body, while the intestines of a dog are only 5.

Anatomy

The intestine fills the entire abdominal cavity. The small intestine starts from the stomach and connects to the large intestine. At the point of transition to the large intestine, the small intestine has a bugine valve.

The upper part of the intestine starts from the stomach, then the loop goes around the two main organs, the liver and the bile duct. On the right side of the peritoneum, the intestine goes down, surrounding the liver and kidney. At the site of the lumbar vertebrae, the jejunum begins, which is located in the upper left part of the abdominal cavity. At the bottom right, the jejunum adjoins the ileum, the loops of which descend into the small pelvis, adjoining the bladder, uterus and rectum.

Functions

The intestines produce a certain amount of hormones and endocrine cells that affect the transport, motor and digestive activity.

When the bowels don't work...

The most common disease is inflammation of the intestinal mucosa. Inflammation or necrosis of the intestine can cause severe inflammation and requires immediate medical attention. In this case, small ulcers on the membrane may occur, as well as diarrhea, impaired stool - retention of feces and gas formation. With prolonged discomfort, improper processing and assimilation of food, there are consequences in the form of hair loss, weight loss, dry skin, and swelling of the extremities.

If the blood flow in the intestines is disturbed, blockage of blood vessels can occur, which will lead to a heart attack of the small intestine. Tumors of the intestine are often benign in nature, but may not appear immediately. In the presence of a tumor, blood discharge appears along with feces, alternating with diarrhea. Treatment of tumor formations occurs only by surgery, and ignoring such symptoms can lead to life-threatening inflammation.

Pancreas

It produces enzymes that break down all nutrients: trypsin affects the decomposition of proteins into amino acids.

gallbladder

The gallbladder is small, about the size of a chicken egg, and has a sac-like appearance. It is located in the cavity between the lobes of the liver.

Based on the name, it is not difficult to guess what is inside the bubble. It is filled with bile, which is produced by the liver and is needed for better absorption of food.

Since it is not always required during digestion, the body has a special reservoir that only throws out a sufficient rate when necessary. To enter the stomach, ducts with peculiar valves go from the bladder.
Bile is secreted from the liver cells. The main functions of secretion are:

• improving the process of assimilation of food;
• increased activity of enzymes;
• improving the breakdown and absorption of fats;
• stop the action of digestive juice.

Bile also has bactericidal properties. In 24 hours, the body produces from a liter of bile to two.

Diseases of the gallbladder can be the result of severe complications. Overuse foods that promote bile secretion can lead to bladder stones.

Because of this, fat metabolism is disturbed and body weight increases. But, in some cases, the effect may be different. Eating foods that do not contribute to the release of bile, a lack of acids, vitamins and fats is formed, and pathology of the lower intestines is also possible. To avoid such health problems, it is necessary to periodically follow a diet that a doctor can prescribe.

Foods that strongly stimulate bile secretion

• Dairy products, meat, fats of both vegetable and animal origin, meat, and egg yolks.
• If there are problems with the liver, then the use of this series of products should be reduced to a minimum.
• If everything is in order with health, then it will never be superfluous to arrange fasting days for yourself. And also during the unloading of the body, it is worth giving up berries, fruits, pickled vegetables and cold drinks.
• Products that weakly stimulate bile secretion.
• A positive effect on the work of the bladder - vegetarian food. If there is no desire or opportunity to comply with it, then you can eat meat. Only boiled chicken or beef is allowed. The use of low-fat, boiled fish is allowed. At the same time, drink plenty of water, at least three liters per day, you can also drink weak tea.

Selection system

All unnecessary and waste substances leave the body with the help of various organs, such as the respiratory and digestive organs. Also, so-called waste products can leave the body through pores on the surface of the skin. These organs are the aforementioned excretion system.

As you know, our body must get rid of everything superfluous, and the kidneys help it in this.

The weight of each of the kidneys is one hundred and fifty grams. Outside, this organ is securely wrapped with connective tissue.

The shape of the kidney is somewhat reminiscent of a bean. With its inner concave side, it faces the spine. On the underside of each of the kidneys there is a notch, the so-called renal gates, which connect to the kidneys means of transport, such as arteries and nerves.

All unnecessary and waste substances leave the body with the help of various organs, such as the respiratory and digestive organs. Also, so-called waste products can leave the body through pores on the surface of the skin.

A longitudinal section of the kidney shows the surface covering and the brighter inner medulla. The deeper layer is an accumulation of renal pyramids. The bases of the pyramids are connected to the surface coating, and the upper parts grow in the direction of the so-called renal pelvis.

The renal pelvis is nothing more than a transit point for urine before final entry into the ureter.

A heart

The heart pumps blood, the kidneys purify it of unnecessary substances, the liver takes part in digestion and in metabolic processes. There is a job for every organ.

It must be remembered that significant changes in the heart are not always accompanied by pain.

If, in the exercise of ordinary physical activity shortness of breath began to occur or intensify, a breakdown is also a serious signal and a reason to immediately consult a doctor.

Be aware of the risk factors! Resolutely forbid yourself to smoke even occasionally at parties with old friends, and it is also very important to check your cholesterol levels. Be very attentive to yourself and listen to your heart! Go see a cardiologist without hesitation if something is bothering you. This is not suspiciousness, but reasonable caution and attention to one's health.

The heart contracts as a whole with a clear sequence: first the atria, and then the ventricles.

In the atria, blood is collected from the veins. The heart has four valves: two valvular and two crescents. The valves are placed between the atria and ventricles.

The movement of blood through the vessels is a necessary condition for maintaining the vital activity of the body. The heart and blood vessels form the circulatory system. The heart is a hollow muscular organ whose main function is to pump blood through the vessels. The heart muscle is able to excite, conduct excitation and contract. The heart contracts under the influence of impulses that arise in the heart itself. This property is called automatism of the heart.

TOPOGRAPHIC ANATOMY OF THE UPPER ABDOMINAL CAVITY

The abdominal cavity is a space lined from the inside by intra-abdominal fascia.

Borders: above - the diaphragm, below - the boundary line, in front - the anterolateral wall, behind - the posterior wall of the abdomen.

Departments:

abdominal (peritoneal) cavity - a space limited by the parietal sheet of the peritoneum;

retroperitoneal space - the space located between the parietal peritoneum and the intra-abdominal fascia, which lines the back wall of the abdomen from the inside.

Peritoneum

The peritoneum is a serous membrane that lines the walls of the abdomen from the inside and covers most of its organs. Departments:

parietal(parietal) peritoneum– lines the walls belly.

Visceral peritoneum– covers the organs of the abdominal cavity.

Options for covering organs with peritoneum:

intraperitoneal - from all sides; mesoperitoneal - on three sides (one side is not

covered); extraperitoneal - on the one hand.

Properties of the peritoneum : humidity, smoothness, shine, elasticity, bactericidal, adhesiveness.

Functions of the peritoneum : fixing, protective, excretory, absorbing, receptor, conductive, depositing (blood).

Course of the peritoneum

From the anterior abdominal wall, the peritoneum passes to the lower concave surface of the diaphragm, then to the upper surface.

the surface of the liver and forms two ligaments: one in the sagittal plane - sickle-shaped, the second in the frontal plane - the coronary ligament of the liver. From the upper surface of the liver, the peritoneum passes to its lower surface and, approaching the gates of the liver, meets with a leaf of the peritoneum, which goes to the liver from the posterior abdominal wall. Both sheets go to the lesser curvature of the stomach and the upper part of the duodenum, forming a lesser omentum. Covering the stomach from all sides, the sheets of the peritoneum descend from its large curvature and, turning, return and approach in front of the transverse colon to the body of the pancreas, forming a greater omentum. In the region of the body of the pancreas, one sheet of current rises up, forming the posterior wall of the abdominal cavity. The second sheet goes to the transverse colon, covers it from all sides, returns back, forming the mesentery of the intestine. Then the sheet goes down, covers the small intestine from all sides, forms its mesentery and the mesentery of the sigmoid colon and descends into the pelvic cavity.

Floors of the abdomen

The peritoneal cavity of the transverse colon and its mesentery is divided into two floors:

Top floor– located above the transverse colon intestines and its mesentery. Contents: liver, spleen, stomach, partially duodenum; right and left hepatic, subhepatic, pregastric and omental bursae.

lower floor– located below the transverse colon intestines and its mesentery. Contents: loops of the jejunum and sub-ileum; caecum and appendix;

colon; lateral canals and mesenteric sinuses. The root of the mesentery of the transverse colon goes from right to left from the right kidney, slightly below its middle, towards the middle of the left. On its way, it crosses: the middle of the descending part of the duodenum; the head of the pancreas

noah gland and goes along the upper edge of the body of the gland.

Bags of the upper floor of the abdominal cavity

Right liver bag located between the diaphragm and the right lobe of the liver and is limited behind the right coronary

a ligament of the liver, on the left - a falciform ligament, and on the right and below it opens into the subhepatic sac and the right lateral canal.

Left hepatic sac lies between the diaphragm and the left lobes of the liver and is bounded behind the left coronary ligament of the liver, on the right - by the falciform ligament, on the left - by the left triangular ligament of the liver, and in front it communicates with the pancreatic sac.

Pregastric bag located between the stomach and the left lobe of the liver and is bounded in front by the lower surface of the left lobe of the liver, behind - by the lesser omentum and the anterior wall of the stomach, from above - by the gates of the liver and communicates with the subhepatic sac and the lower floor of the abdominal cavity through the preomental fissure.

Subhepatic bag limited in front and above by the lower surface of the right lobe of the liver, below - by the transverse colon and its mesentery, on the left - by the gates of the liver and on the right opens into the right lateral canal.

Stuffing bag forms a closed pocket behind stomach and consists of vestibule and gastro-pancreatic sac.

The vestibule of the omental bag bounded at the top of the tail

that lobe of the liver, in front - a small omentum, from below - the duodenum, behind - the parietal part of the peritoneum lying on the aorta and the inferior vena cava.

Stuffing hole limited in front by the hepatoduodenal ligament, in which the hepatic artery, common bile duct and portal vein are laid, below - by the duodenal-renal ligament, behind - by the hepato-renal ligament, above - by the caudate lobe of the liver.

Gastrointestinal- pancreatic sac limited front to back

the surface of the lesser omentum, the posterior surface of the stomach and the posterior surface of the gastrocolic ligament, behind - the parietal peritoneum lining the pancreas, aorta and inferior vena cava, above - the caudate lobe of the liver, below - the mesentery of the transverse colon, on the left - the stomach -dochno-splenic and renal-splenic ligaments.

Topographic anatomy of the stomach Holotopia: left hypochondrium, actually epigastric ob-

Skeletotopia:

cardiac opening - to the left of Th XI (behind the cartilage of the VII rib);

bottom - Th X (V rib along the left midclavicular line); gatekeeper - L1 (VIII right rib in the midline).

syntopia: above - the diaphragm and the left lobe of the liver, behind

on the left - the pancreas, left kidney, adrenal gland and spleen, in front - the abdominal wall, below - the transverse colon and its mesentery.

Ligaments of the stomach:

Hepatic- gastric ligament– between the gates of the liver and lesser curvature of the stomach; contains the left and right gastric arteries, veins, branches of the vagus trunks, lymphatic vessels and nodes.

diaphragmatic- esophageal ligament– between the diaphragm

esophagus and cardial part of the stomach; contains a branch of the left gastric artery.

Gastrointestinal- diaphragmatic ligament formed as a result the transition of the parietal peritoneum from the diaphragm to the anterior wall of the fundus and partially to the cardial part of the stomach.

Gastrointestinal- splenic ligament– between the spleen and greater curvature of the stomach; contains short arteries and veins of the stomach.

Gastrointestinal- colonic ligament– between the greater curvature stomach and transverse colon; contains the right and left gastroepiploic arteries.

Gastrointestinal- pancreatic ligament formed during the transition

de peritoneum from the upper edge of the pancreas to the back wall of the body, cardia and fundus of the stomach; contains the left gastric artery.

Blood supply to the stomach provided by the celiac trunk system.

Left gastric artery is divided into ascending esophageal and descending branches, which, passing along the lesser curvature of the stomach from left to right, give off the anterior and posterior branches.

Right gastric artery starts from own hepatic artery. As part of the hepatoduodenal ligament, the artery reaches the pyloric

of the stomach and between the leaves of the lesser omentum along the lesser curvature goes to the left towards the left gastric artery, forming an arterial arc of the lesser curvature of the stomach.

Left gastrointestinal- omental artery is a branch splenic artery and is located between the leaves of the gastro-splenic and gastrocolic ligaments along the greater curvature of the stomach.

Right gastrointestinal- omental artery starts from gastroduodenal artery and goes from right to left along the greater curvature of the stomach towards the left gastroepiploic artery, forming a second arterial arch along the greater curvature of the stomach.

short gastric arteries in quantity 2-7 branches depart from the splenic artery and, passing in the gastrosplenic ligament, reach the bottom along the greater curvature

The veins of the stomach accompany the arteries of the same name and flow into the portal vein or into one of its roots.

Lymph drainage

The efferent lymphatic vessels of the stomach flow into the lymph nodes of the first order, located in the lesser omentum, located along the greater curvature, at the gates of the spleen, along the tail and body of the pancreas, into the subpyloric and superior mesenteric lymph nodes. The efferent vessels from all the listed first-order lymph nodes are sent to the second-order lymph nodes, which are located near the celiac trunk. From them, the lymph flows into the lumbar lymph nodes.

Innervation of the stomach provided by the sympathetic and parasympathetic parts of the autonomic nervous system. The main sympathetic nerve fibers are sent to the stomach from the celiac plexus, enter and spread in the organ along the extra- and intraorganic vessels. Parasympathetic nerve fibers enter the stomach from the right and left vagus nerves, which form the anterior and posterior vagus trunks below the diaphragm.

Topographic anatomy of the duodenum Holotopia: in the epigastric and umbilical regions.

The duodenum is divided into four sections: superior, descending, horizontal, and ascending.

Top part ( bulb ) duodenum located between the pylorus and the superior flexure of the duodenum.

Relation to the peritoneum: covered intraperitoneally in the initial, mesoperitoneally in the middle parts.

Skeletotopia– L1.

syntopia: above the gallbladder from below the head of the pancreas, in front of the antrum of the stomach.

Descending part duodenum forms more or less pronounced bend to the right and goes from the upper to the lower bends. The common bile duct and the pancreatic duct on the major duodenal papilla open into this part. A little above it, there may be a non-permanent small duodenal papilla, on which an additional pancreatic duct opens.

Relation to the peritoneum:

Skeletotopia– L1-L3.

syntopia: on the left is the head of the pancreas, behind and on the right, the right kidney, right renal vein, inferior vena cava and ureter, in front of the mesentery of the transverse colon and loops of the small intestine.

horizontal part duodenum goes from the lower bend to the intersection with the superior mesenteric vessels.

Relation to the peritoneum: located retroperitoneally.

Skeletotopia– L3.

syntopia: from above the head of the pancreas, behind inferior vena cava and abdominal aorta, in front and below the loop of the small intestine.

ascending part of the duodenum goes from the intersection with the superior mesenteric vessels to the left and up to the duodeno-jejunal flexure and is fixed by the suspensory ligament of the duodenum.

Relation to the peritoneum: located mesoperitoneally.

Skeletotopia– L3-L2.

syntopia: from above the lower surface of the body of the pancreas, behind the inferior vena cava and abdominal aorta, in front and below the loop of the small intestine.

Ligaments of the duodenum

Hepatic- duodenal ligament– between the gates liver and the initial section of the duodenum and contains its own hepatic artery, located in the ligament on the left, the common bile duct, located on the right, and between them and behind - the portal vein.

duodenal- renal ligament in the form of a fold

the tires are stretched between the outer edge of the descending part of the intestine and the right kidney.

Blood supply to the duodenum provide

is derived from the system of the celiac trunk and the superior mesenteric artery.

Posterior and anterior superior pancreas- twelve-

duodenal arteries depart from the gastroduodenal arteries.

rear and anterior inferior pancreas-

duodenal arteries arise from the superior mesenteric arteries, go towards the top two and connect with them.

The veins of the duodenum repeat the course of the arteries of the same name and divert blood into the portal vein system.

Lymph drainage

The efferent lymphatic vessels empty into the lymph nodes of the first order, which are the upper and lower pancreaticoduodenal nodes.

innervation The duodenum is carried out from the celiac, superior mesenteric, hepatic and pancreatic nerve plexuses, as well as branches of both vagus nerves.

Intestinal suture

Intestinal suture is a collective concept that combines all types of sutures that are applied to hollow organs (esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines).

Primary requirements, presented to the intestinal suture:

tightness– is achieved by contact of the serous membranes of the stitched surfaces.

Hemostatic– is achieved by capturing the submucosal base of the hollow organ into the suture (the suture should provide hemostasis, but without significant disruption of the blood supply to the organ wall along the suture line).

adaptability– the seam must be carried out taking into account sheath structure of the walls of the digestive tract for optimal comparison with each other of the same name shells of the intestinal tube.

Strength– is achieved by capturing the submucosal layer in the seam, where a large number of elastic fibers are located.

Asepsis(purity, uninfected) - this requirement is met if the mucosa of the organ is not captured in the suture (the use of “clean” single-row sutures or the immersion of through (infected) sutures with a “clean” serous-muscular suture).

In the wall of the hollow organs of the abdominal cavity, four main layers are distinguished: the mucous membrane; submucosal layer; muscle layer; serous layer.

The serous membrane has pronounced plastic properties (the surfaces of the serous membrane brought into contact with the help of sutures after 12-14 hours are firmly glued together, and after 24-48 hours the connected surfaces of the serous layer are firmly fused with each other). Thus, suturing, bringing together the serous membrane, ensures the tightness of the intestinal suture. The frequency of such seams should be at least 4 stitches per 1 cm of the length of the stitched area. The muscular coat gives elasticity to the suture line and therefore its capture is an indispensable attribute of almost any type of intestinal suture. The submucosal layer provides the mechanical strength of the intestinal suture, as well as good vascularization of the suture zone. Therefore, the connection of the edges of the intestine is always produced with the capture of the submucosa. The mucous membrane does not have mechanical strength. The connection of the edges of the mucous membrane provides a good adaptation of the edges of the wound and protects the suture line from the penetration of infection from the lumen of the organ.

Classification of intestinal sutures

Depending on the application method

manual;

mechanical– superimposed by special devices;

combined.

Depending on whether , which layers of the wall are captured - in a seam

gray- serous; serous- muscular;

slimy- submucosal; seriously- muscular- submucosal;

serous- muscular- submucosally- mucous(through).

Through seams are infected ("dirty").

Sutures that do not pass through the mucous membrane are called non-infected (“clean”).

Depending on the row of intestinal sutures

single row seams(Bira-Pirogova, Mateshuk) - a thread passes through the edges of the serous, muscular membranes and submucosa (without capturing the mucous membrane), which ensures good adaptation of the edges and reliable immersion of the mucous membrane into the intestinal lumen without additional traumatization;

double row stitches(Alberta) - used as the first row is a through suture, on top of which (the second row) a serous-muscular suture is applied;

three-row seams– used as the first a series of through sutures, on top of which serous-muscular sutures are applied with the second and third rows (usually used for imposing on the large intestine).

Depending on the characteristics of the sutures through the wall of the wound edge

marginal seams; screw-in seams;

eversion seams; combined screw-in- eversible seams.

According to the overlay method

nodal; continuous.

OPERATIONS ON THE STOMACH

Surgical interventions performed on the stomach are divided into palliative and radical. Palliative operations include: suturing of a perforated gastric ulcer, gastrostomy and gastroenteroanastomosis. Radical operations on the stomach include the removal of part (resection) or the entire stomach (gastrectomy).

Palliative gastric surgery– imposition of an artificial fistula of the stomach

Indications : injured, fistula, burns and cicatricial narrowing esophagus, inoperable cancer of the pharynx, esophagus, cardia of the stomach.

Classification :

tubular fistulas– to create and operate use a rubber tube (Witzel and Strain-ma-Senna-Kader methods); are temporary and usually close on their own after removal of the tube;

labial fistulas– an artificial entrance is formed from the walls of the stomach (the method of Topprover); are permanent, since their closure requires surgery.

Gastrostomy according to Witzel

transrectal left-sided layered laparotomy 10-12 cm long from the costal arch down;

removal of the anterior wall of the stomach into the wound, on which a rubber tube is laid between the small and large curvatures along the long axis, so that its end is located in the region of the pyloric region;

the imposition of 6-8 nodal serous-muscular sutures on both sides of the tube;

immersion of the tube into the gray-serous canal formed by the anterior wall of the stomach by tying sutures;

the imposition of a purse-string suture in the area of ​​the pylorus, opening the wall of the stomach inside the suture, inserting the end of the tube into the cavity of the stomach;

tightening the purse-string suture and applying 2-3 serous-muscular sutures over it;

removal of the other end of the tube through a separate incision along the outer edge of the left rectus muscle;

fixation of the stomach wall (gastropexy) along the formed edge to the parietal peritoneum and to the posterior wall of the sheath of the rectus abdominis muscle with several serous-muscular sutures.

Gastrostomy according to Strain- Senna- Kaderu

transrectal access; removal of the anterior wall of the stomach into the wound and application

closer to the cardia of three purse-string sutures (two in children) at a distance of 1.5-2 cm from each other;

opening the stomach cavity in the center of the internal purse-string suture and inserting a rubber tube;

sequential tightening of purse-string sutures, starting from the inside;

removal of the tube through an additional incision of soft tissues;

gastropexy.

When creating tubular fistulas, it is necessary to carefully fix the anterior wall of the stomach to the parietal peritoneum. This stage of the operation allows you to isolate the abdominal cavity from the external environment and prevent serious complications.

Lipoid gastrostomy according to Topprover

operational access; removal of the anterior wall of the stomach into the surgical wound

in the form of a cone and the imposition of 3 purse-string sutures on it at a distance of 1-2 cm from each other, without tightening them;

dissection of the stomach wall at the top of the cone and introduction of a thick tube inside;

alternately tightening the purse-string sutures, starting from the outside (a corrugated cylinder is formed around the tube from the wall of the stomach, lined with a mucous membrane);

suturing of the stomach wall at the level of the lower purse-string suture to the parietal peritoneum, at the level of the second suture - to

the vagina of the rectus abdominis muscle, at the level of the third - to the skin;

at the end of the operation, the tube is removed and inserted only at the time of feeding.

Gastroenterostomy(an anastomosis between the stomach and the small intestine) is performed in violation of the patency of the pyloric part of the stomach (inoperable tumors, cicatricial stenosis, etc.) in order to create an additional path for the removal of gastric contents into the jejunum. Depending on the position of the intestinal loop in relation to the stomach and transverse colon, the following types of gastroenteroanastomoses are distinguished:

anterior anterior colonic gastroenteroanastomosis;

posterior anterior colonic gastroenteroanastomosis;

anterior retrocolic gastroenteroanastomosis;

posterior retrocolic gastroenteroanastomosis. Most often, the first and fourth variants of the operation are used.

When applying the anterior anterior fistula, 30-45 cm recede from the flexura duodenojejunalis (anastomosis for a long

loop) and additionally, in order to prevent the development of a "vicious circle", an anastomosis is formed between the afferent and efferent loops of the jejunum in a side-to-side manner. When applying the posterior retrocolic anastomosis, 7-10 cm recede from the flexura duo-denojejunalis (anastomosis on a short loop). For the correct functioning of the anastomoses, they are applied isoperistaltically (the afferent loop should be located closer to the cardial part of the stomach, and the outlet loop should be closer to the antrum).

Severe complication after the operation of the imposition of the gastrointestinal anastomosis - " vicious circle"- occurs, most often, with an anterior anastomosis with a relatively long loop. The contents from the stomach enters in an antiperistaltic direction into the adductor jejunum (due to the predominance of the motor force of the stomach) and then back to the stomach. Causes This formidable complication is: incorrect suturing of the intestinal loop in relation to the axis of the stomach (in the antiperistaltic direction) and the formation of the so-called "spur".

In order to avoid the development of a vicious circle due to the formation of a "spur", the leading end of the jejunum is strengthened to the stomach by additional serous-muscular sutures 1.5-2 cm above the anastomosis. This prevents the kink of the intestine and the formation of a "spur".

Suturing of a perforated ulcer of the stomach and duodenum

With a perforated gastric ulcer, it is possible to perform two types of urgent surgical interventions: suturing the perforated ulcer or resection of the stomach along with the ulcer.

Indications for suturing a perforated ulcer :

patients in childhood and young age; in individuals with a short ulcer history;

in older people with comorbidities (cardiovascular insufficiency, diabetes mellitus, etc.);

if more than 6 hours have passed since the perforation; with insufficient experience of the surgeon.

When suturing a perforation, it is necessary

adhere to the following rules:

a defect in the wall of the stomach or duodenum is usually sutured with two rows of serous-muscular Lambert sutures;

the suture line should be directed perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the organ (to avoid stenosis of the lumen of the stomach or duodenum);

radical stomach surgery

Radical operations include gastric resection and gastrectomy. The main indications for these interventions are: complications of gastric and duodenal ulcers, benign and malignant tumors of the stomach.

Classification :

Depending on the location of the removed part of the organ:

proximal resections(the cardiac part and part of the body of the stomach are removed);

distal resections(the antrum is removed and body part of the stomach).

Depending on the volume of the removed part of the stomach:

economical - resection of 1/3-1/2 of the stomach;

extensive - resection of 2/3 of the stomach;

subtotal - resection of 4/5 of the stomach.

Depending on the shape of the removed part of the stomach:

wedge-shaped;

stepped;

circular.

Stages of gastric resection

Mobilization(skeletonization) part to be removed-

Ludka– intersection of the vessels of the stomach along the small and greater curvature between the ligatures throughout the resection area. Depending on the nature of the pathology (ulcer or cancer), the volume of the removed part of the stomach is determined.

Resection– the part to be resected is removed stomach.

Restoring the continuity of the digestive tube( gastroduodenoanastomosis or gastroenteroanastomosis ).

In this regard, there are two main types of opera-

The operation according to the Billroth-1 method is the creation of an “end-to-end” anastomosis between the stomach stump and the duodenal stump.

Operation according to the Billroth-2 method - the formation of an anastomosis "side to side" between the stomach stump and the loop of the jejunum, the closure of the duodenal stump ( in class-

not applicable).

The operation according to the Billroth-1 method has an important advantage over the Billroth-2 method: it is physiological, because the natural passage of food from the stomach into the duodenum is not disturbed, i.e. the latter is not switched off from digestion.

However, the Billroth-1 operation can be completed only with “small” resections of the stomach: 1/3 or antrum resection. In all other cases, due to anatomical features (for-

the peritoneal location of most of the duodenum and fixation of the stomach stump to the esophagus), it is very difficult to form a gastroduodenal anastomosis (there is a high probability of suture divergence due to tension).

Currently, for resection of at least 2/3 of the stomach, the Billroth-2 operation is used in the Hofmeister-Finsterer modification. The essence of this modification is as follows:

the stump of the stomach is connected to the jejunum in an end-to-side anastomosis;

the width of the anastomosis is 1/3 of the lumen of the stomach stump;

the anastomosis is fixed in the "window" of the mesentery of the transverse colon;

the adductor loop of the jejunum is sutured with two or three interrupted sutures to the stomach stump to prevent the reflux of food masses into it.

The main disadvantage of all modifications of the Billroth-2 operation is the exclusion of the duodenum from digestion.

In 5-20% of patients who underwent resection of the stomach, diseases of the "operated stomach" develop: dumping syndrome, afferent loop syndrome (reflux of food masses into the afferent loop of the small intestine), peptic ulcers, cancer of the stomach stump, etc. Often such patients have to be operated on again - to perform a reconstructive operation, which has two goals: removal of the pathological focus (ulcer, tumor) and inclusion of the duodenum in digestion.

For advanced stomach cancer, gastrek- tomy-removal of the entire stomach. Usually it is removed along with the greater and lesser omentums, the spleen, the tail of the pancreas and regional lymph nodes. After removal of the entire stomach, the continuity of the digestive canal is restored by gastric plasty. Plastic surgery of this organ is performed using a loop of the jejunum, a segment of the transverse rim or other parts of the large intestine. The small or large intestine insert is connected to the esophagus and duodenum, thus restoring the natural passage of food.

Vagotomy- dissection of the vagus nerves.

Indications : complicated forms of duodenal ulcer and pyloric stomach, accompanied by penetration, perforation.

Classification

1. stem vagotomy– intersection of the trunks of the vagus nerves to the departure of the hepatic and celiac nerves. Leads to parasympathetic denervation of the liver, gallbladder, duodenum, small intestine and pancreas, as well as to gastrostasis (performed in combination with pyloroplasty or other draining operations)

supradiaphragmatic; subphrenic.

Selective vagotomy– is to cross trunks of the vagus nerves, going to the entire stomach, after separation of the branches of the hepatic and celiac nerves.

Selective proximal vagotomy– cross-

Xia branches of the vagus nerves, going only to the body and fundus of the stomach. The branches of the vagus nerves that innervate the antrum of the stomach and the pylorus (Laterje branch) do not cross. The Laterger branch is considered purely motor, which regulates the motility of the saw-

ric sphincter of the stomach.

Draining operations on the stomach

Indications: ulcerative pyloric stenosis, bulbs of the duodenum and the post-bulbous section.

Pyloroplasty – an operation to expand the pyloric opening of the stomach with the preservation or restoration of the closing function of the pylorus.

Heinecke method – Mikulich – lies in pro-

longitudinal dissection of the pyloric part of the stomach and the initial part of the duodenum, 4 cm long, followed by transverse stitching of the formed wound.

Finney's way – dissect the antrum stomach and the initial section of the duodenum with a continuous arcuate incision and

put stitches on the wound according to the principle of the upper gastroduodenoanastomosis "side to side".

Gastroduodenostomy

Jabolei's way – applied if available obstacles in the pyloroanthral zone; a side-to-side gastroduodenoanastomosis is applied, bypassing the place of the obstacle.

Gastrojejunostomy – the imposition of a classic gastroenteroanastomosis on the "off".

Features of the stomach in newborns and children

In newborns, the stomach is rounded, its pyloric, cardiac sections and fundus are weakly expressed. The growth and formation of the sections of the stomach is uneven. The pyloric part begins to stand out only by 2-3 months of a child's life and develops by 4-6 months. The area of ​​the bottom of the stomach is clearly defined only by 10-11 months. The muscular ring of the cardial region is almost absent, which is associated with a weak closure of the entrance to the stomach and the possibility of throwing back the contents of the stomach into the esophagus (regurgitation). The cardial part of the stomach is finally formed by 7-8 years.

The mucous membrane of the stomach in newborns is thin, the folds are not pronounced. The submucosal layer is rich in blood vessels and has little connective tissue. The muscular layer in the first months of life is poorly developed. The arteries and veins of the stomach in young children differ in that the size of their main trunks and branches of the first and second orders is almost the same.

Malformations

Congenital hypertrophic pyloric stenosis– expressed-

hypertrophy of the muscle layer of the pylorus with narrowing or complete closure of the lumen with folds of the mucous membrane. In the longitudinal direction, the serous membrane and part of the circular muscle fibers of the pylorus are dissected along its entire length, the mucous membrane of the pylorus is released from deep muscle fibers in a blunt way until it bulges completely through the incision, the wound is sutured in layers.

constrictions(strictures) body of the stomach– body takes hourglass shape.

Complete absence of the stomach. doubling of the stomach.

Features of the duodenum in newborns- money and children

The duodenum in newborns is more often ring-shaped and less often U-shaped. In children of the first years of life, the upper and lower bends of the duodenum are almost completely absent.

The upper horizontal part of the intestine in newborns is above the usual level, and only by the age of 7-9 falls to the body of the 1st lumbar vertebra. Ligaments between the duodenum and neighboring organs in young children are very tender, and almost complete absence fatty tissue in the retroperitoneal space creates the possibility of significant mobility of this section of the intestine and the formation of additional kinks.

Malformations of the duodenum

Atresia– complete lack of light (characterized strong expansion and thinning of the walls of those sections of the intestine that are above the atresia).

stenoses– due to localized hypertrophy of the wall, the presence of a valve, a membrane in the lumen of the intestine, compression of the intestine by embryonic cords, an annular pancreas, superior mesenteric artery, and a highly located caecum.

In case of atresias and stenoses of the jejunum and ileum, the atrezated or narrowed intestine is resected along with a stretched, functionally incomplete section over 20-25 cm. In case of obstruction in the distal intestine, duodenojejunoanastomosis is used.

Diverticula.

Malposition of the duodenum–

mobile duodenum.

Lecture # 7