Carbohydrates are insoluble in water. Biology at the Lyceum

1. Small size molecules (easily penetrates cell membranes along a concentration gradient , pores)

2. Ability for electrolytic dissociation (HOH = H+ + OH+)

3. Dipole structure (asymmetric distribution of atomic charges + and -)

4. The ability to form H bonds (thanks to them, all molecules of natural and cellular water are associated, individual molecules only at a temperature of 4000 C); H - bonds are 20 times weaker than covalent bonds

5. High heat of evaporation (cooling of the body)

6. Maximum density at a temperature of 4 0 C (occupies minimum volume)

7. The ability to dissolve gases (O2, CO2, etc. )

8. High thermal conductivity (fast and uniform distribution heat)

9. Incompressibility (giving shape to succulent organs and tissues)

10. Large specific heat capacity (the largest of all known liquids)

• protection of tissues from rapid and strong increase temperature
• excess energy (heat) is spent on breaking H-bonds

11. High heat of fusion (reduces the likelihood of freezing the contents of cells and surrounding fluids)

12. Surface tension And cohesion(the largest of all liquids)

Cohesion -cohesion of molecules of a physical body under the influence of attractive forces

• ensures the movement of water through the vessels of xylem (conductive tissue of plants)
• movement of solutions through tissues (upward and downward currents through the plant, blood circulation, etc.)

13. Transparency in the visible spectrum (photosynthesis, evaporation)

Biological functions of water

• all living cells can only exist in a liquid environment

1. Water is a universal solvent

q According to the degree of solubility, substances are divided into:

Hydrophilic(highly soluble in water) - salts, mono- and disaccharides, simple alcohols, acids, alkalis, amino acids, peptides

• hydrophilicity is determined by the presence of groups of atoms (radicals) - OH-, COOH-, NH2-, etc.

Hydrophobic(poorly soluble or insoluble in water) - lipids, fats, fat-like substances, rubber, some organic solvents (benzene, ether), fatty acids, polysaccharides, globular proteins

• hydrophobicity is determined by the presence of non-polar molecular groups:

CH3 - , CH2 -

• hydrophobic substances can separate aqueous solutions into separate compartments (fractions)
• hydrophobic substances are repelled by water and attracted to each other (hydrophobic interactions)

Amphiphilic– phospholipids, fatty acids

• contain molecules such as OH-, NH2-, COOH- and CH3-, CH2 - CH3-
• in wave solutions form a bimolecular layer

2. Provides turgor phenomena in plant cells

Turgor — elasticity plant cells, tissues and organs created by intracellular fluid

• determines the shape, elasticity of cells and cell growth, stomatal movements, transpiration (evaporation of water), absorption of water by roots

3. Medium for diffusion

4. Causes osmotic pressure and osmoregulation

Osmosis -the process of diffusion of water and chemical substances dissolved in it through a semi-permeable membrane along a concentration gradient (toward increased concentration)

• underlies the transport of hydrophilic substances through the cell membrane, the absorption of digestive products in the intestines, water by roots, etc.

5. Entry of substances into the cell(mostly in the form aqueous solution) — endocytosis

6. Removal of metabolic products (metabolites) from the cell – exocytosis, excretion

• carried out mainly in the form of aqueous solutions

7. Creates and maintains a chemical environment for physiological and biochemical processes - const pH+— strict homeostasis for optimal implementation of enzyme functions

8. Creates an environment for everything to flow chemical reactions metabolism (most of occurs only in the form of aqueous solutions)

9. Water is a chemical reagent(most important metabolite)

• reactions of hydrolysis, breakdown and digestion of proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, reserve biopolymers, macroergs - ATP, nucleic acids
• participates in synthesis reactions, redox reactions

13. The basis for the formation of liquid internal environment body - blood, lymph, tissue fluid, cerebrospinal fluid

14. Provides transport of inorganic ions and organic molecules in the cell and body (according to liquid media organism, cytoplasm, conducting tissue - xylem, phloem

15. Source of oxygen released during photosynthesis

16. Donor of hydrogen atoms necessary for the restoration of CO2 assimilation products during photosynthesis

17. Thermoregulation(absorption or release of heat due to the rupture or formation of hydrogen bonds) - const to C

18. Support function (hydrostatic skeleton in animals)

19. Protective function (tear fluid, mucus)

20. Serves as a medium in which fertilization occurs

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Lipids are fat-like organic compounds, insoluble in water, but highly soluble in non-polar solvents (ether, gasoline, benzene, chloroform, etc.). Lipids belong to the simplest biological molecules.

Chemically, most lipids are esters of higher carboxylic acids and a number of alcohols.

The most famous among them are fats. Each fat molecule is formed by a molecule of the triatomic alcohol glycerol and the ester bonds of three molecules of higher carboxylic acids attached to it. According to the accepted nomenclature, fats are called triacyl glycerols.

Carbon atoms in molecules of higher carboxylic acids can be connected to each other by both simple and double bonds.

Of the saturated (saturated) higher carboxylic acids, palmitic, stearic, and arachidic acids are most often found in fats; from unsaturated (unsaturated) - oleic and linoleic.

The degree of unsaturation and chain length of higher carboxylic acids (i.e.

3 Water as a solvent

number of carbon atoms) is determined physical properties one kind of fat or another.

Fats with short and unsaturated acid chains have a low melting point. At room temperature these are liquids (oils) or ointment-like substances (fats). Conversely, fats with long and saturated chains of higher carboxylic acids become solid at room temperature.

This is why, when hydrogenation (saturation of acid chains with hydrogen atoms at double bonds), liquid peanut butter, for example, becomes spreadable, and sunflower oil turns into solid margarine. Compared to the inhabitants of southern latitudes, in the body of animals living in cold climates (for example, in fish arctic seas), usually contains more unsaturated triacylglycerols. For this reason, their body remains flexible even at low temperatures.

In phospholipids, one of the extreme chains of higher carboxylic acids of triacylglycerol is replaced by a group containing phosphate.

Phospholipids have polar heads and nonpolar tails. The groups forming the polar head group are hydrophilic, while the non-polar tail groups are hydrophobic. The dual nature of these lipids determines their key role in the organization of biological membranes.

Another group of lipids consists of steroids (sterols). These substances are based on cholesterol alcohol. Sterols are poorly soluble in water and do not contain higher carboxylic acids. These include bile acids, cholesterol, sex hormones, vitamin D, etc.

Lipids also include terpenes (plant growth substances - gibberellins; carotenoids - photosynthetic pigments; essential oils of plants, as well as waxes).

Lipids can form complexes with other biological molecules - proteins and sugars.

The functions of lipids are as follows:

Structural.

Phospholipids together with proteins form biological membranes. The membranes also contain sterols.

Energy. When fats are oxidized, they are released a large number of energy that goes into the formation of ATP.

A significant portion of the body's energy reserves are stored in the form of lipids, which are consumed when there is a lack of nutrients. Hibernating animals and plants accumulate fats and oils and use them to maintain vital processes. The high lipid content in plant seeds ensures the development of the embryo and seedling before they transition to independent nutrition.

The seeds of many plants (coconut palm, castor oil, sunflower, soybean, rapeseed, etc.) serve as raw materials for producing vegetable oil industrially.

Protective and thermal insulating.

Accumulating in subcutaneous tissue and around some organs (kidneys, intestines), the fat layer protects the animal’s body and its individual organs from mechanical damage. In addition, due to low thermal conductivity, the layer of subcutaneous fat helps retain heat, which allows, for example, many animals to live in cold climates.

In whales, in addition, it plays another role - it promotes buoyancy.

Lubricating and water repellent. Wax covers the skin, wool, feathers, makes them more elastic and protects them from moisture.

The leaves and fruits of many plants have a waxy coating.

Regulatory. Many hormones are derivatives of cholesterol, such as sex hormones (testosterone in men and progesterone in women) and corticosteroids (aldosterone). Cholesterol derivatives, vitamin D play a key role in the metabolism of calcium and phosphorus. Bile acids are involved in the processes of digestion (emulsification of fats) and absorption of higher carboxylic acids.

Lipids are also a source of metabolic water.

The oxidation of 100 g of fat produces approximately 105 g of water. This water is very important for some desert inhabitants, in particular for camels, which can do without water for 10-12 days: the fat stored in the hump is used precisely for these purposes. Bears, marmots and other hibernating animals obtain the water they need for life as a result of fat oxidation.

In the myelin sheaths of the axons of nerve cells, lipids are insulators during the conduction of nerve impulses.

Wax is used by bees to build honeycombs.

Source: N.A.

Lemeza L.V. Kamlyuk N.D. Lisov "A manual on biology for those entering universities"

Water-soluble carbohydrates.

Functions of soluble carbohydrates: transport, protective, signaling, energy.

Monosaccharides: glucose– the main source of energy for cellular respiration. Fructose – component flower nectar and fruit juices.

Ribose and deoxyribose– structural elements of nucleotides, which are monomers of RNA and DNA.

Disaccharides: sucrose(glucose + fructose) is the main product of photosynthesis transported in plants. Lactose(glucose + galactose) – is part of the milk of mammals.

Maltose(glucose + glucose) is a source of energy in germinating seeds.

Slide 8

Polymeric carbohydrates:

starch, glycogen, cellulose, chitin.

They are not soluble in water.

Functions of polymeric carbohydrates: structural, storage, energy, protective.

Starch consists of branched spiral molecules that form reserve substances in plant tissues.

Cellulose– a polymer formed by glucose residues consisting of several straight parallel chains connected by hydrogen bonds.

This structure prevents the penetration of water and ensures the stability of the cellulose membranes of plant cells.

Chitin consists of amino derivatives of glucose. The main structural element of the integument of arthropods and the cell walls of fungi.

Glycogen- reserve substance of an animal cell.

Glycogen is even more branched than starch and is highly soluble in water.

Lipids– esters of fatty acids and glycerol. Insoluble in water, but soluble in non-polar solvents.

Present in all cells. Lipids are made up of hydrogen, oxygen and carbon atoms. Types of lipids: fats, waxes, phospholipids.

Slide 9

Functions of lipids:

Storage– fats are stored in the tissues of vertebrate animals.

Energy– half of the energy consumed by the cells of vertebrates at rest is formed as a result of fat oxidation.

Fats are also used as a source of water. The energy effect from the breakdown of 1 g of fat is 39 kJ, which is twice as much as the energy effect from the breakdown of 1 g of glucose or protein.

Protective– the subcutaneous fat layer protects the body from mechanical damage.

Structural – phospholipids are part of cell membranes.

Thermal insulation– subcutaneous fat helps retain heat.

Electrical insulating– myelin secreted by Schwann cells (they form membranes nerve fibers), isolates some neurons, which speeds up the transmission of nerve impulses many times.

Nutritious– some lipid-like substances promote the growth muscle mass, maintaining body tone.

Lubricating– waxes cover the skin, wool, feathers and protect them from water.

The leaves of many plants are covered with a waxy coating; wax is used in the construction of honeycombs.

Hormonal– adrenal hormone – cortisone and sex hormones are of lipid nature.

Slide 10

Proteins, their structure and functions

Proteins are biological heteropolymers whose monomers are amino acids.

Proteins are synthesized in living organisms and perform certain functions in them.

Proteins contain atoms of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen and sometimes sulfur.

The monomers of proteins are amino acids - substances containing unchangeable parts - the amino group NH2 and the carboxyl group COOH and a changeable part - the radical.

It is the radicals that make amino acids different from each other.

Amino acids have the properties of an acid and a base (they are amphoteric), so they can combine with each other. Their number in one molecule can reach several hundred. Alternating different amino acids in different sequences makes it possible to obtain a huge number of proteins with different structures and functions.

Proteins contain 20 types of different amino acids, some of which animals cannot synthesize.

They get them from plants that can synthesize all the amino acids. It is to amino acids that proteins are broken down in the digestive tracts of animals. From these amino acids entering the body's cells, its new proteins are built.

Slide 11

Structure of a protein molecule.

The structure of a protein molecule is understood as its amino acid composition, the sequence of monomers and the degree of twisting of the molecule, which must fit in various sections and organelles of the cell, not alone, but together with a huge amount other molecules.

The sequence of amino acids in a protein molecule forms its primary structure.

It depends on the sequence of nucleotides in the section of the DNA molecule (gene) encoding the protein. Adjacent amino acids are linked by peptide bonds that occur between the carbon of the carboxyl group of one amino acid and the nitrogen of the amino group of another amino acid.

A long protein molecule folds and first takes on the appearance of a spiral.

This is how the secondary structure of the protein molecule arises. Between CO and NH - groups of amino acid residues, adjacent turns of the helix, hydrogen bonds arise that hold the chain together.

A protein molecule of complex configuration in the form of a globule (ball) acquires a tertiary structure. The strength of this structure is provided by hydrophobic, hydrogen, ionic and disulfide S-S bonds.

Some proteins have a quaternary structure, formed by several polypeptide chains (tertiary structures).

The quaternary structure is also held together by weak non-covalent bonds - ionic, hydrogen, hydrophobic. However, the strength of these bonds is low and the structure can be easily damaged. When heated or treated with certain chemicals, the protein becomes denatured and loses its biological activity.

Disruption of quaternary, tertiary and secondary structures is reversible. The destruction of the primary structure is irreversible.

In any cell there are hundreds of protein molecules that perform various functions.

In addition, proteins have species specificity. This means that each species of organism has proteins not found in other species. This creates serious difficulties when transplanting organs and tissues from one person to another, when grafting one type of plant onto another, etc.

Slide 12

Functions of proteins.

Catalytic (enzymatic) – proteins accelerate all biochemical processes occurring in the cell: the breakdown of nutrients in digestive tract, participate in matrix synthesis reactions.

Each enzyme speeds up one and only one reaction (both direct and reverse direction). The rate of enzymatic reactions depends on the temperature of the medium, its pH level, as well as on the concentrations of the reacting substances and the concentration of the enzyme.

Transport– proteins provide active transport of ions through cell membranes, transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide, transport of fatty acids.

Protective– antibodies provide immune protection of the body; fibrinogen and fibrin protect the body from blood loss.

Structural- one of the main functions of proteins.

Proteins are part of cell membranes; the protein keratin forms hair and nails; proteins collagen and elastin – cartilage and tendons.

Contractive– provided by contractile proteins – actin and myosin.

Signal– protein molecules can receive signals and serve as their carriers in the body (hormones). It should be remembered that not all hormones are proteins.

Energy– during prolonged fasting, proteins can be used as an additional source of energy after carbohydrates and fats have been consumed.

Slide13

Nucleic acids

Nucleic acids were discovered in 1868.

Swiss scientist F. Miescher. In organisms, there are several types of nucleic acids that are found in various cell organelles - the nucleus, mitochondria, plastids. Nucleic acids include DNA, i-RNA, t-RNA, r-RNA.

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)– a linear polymer in the form of a double helix formed by a pair of antiparallel complementary (corresponding to each other in configuration) chains.

The spatial structure of the DNA molecule was modeled by American scientists James Watson and Francis Crick in 1953.

The monomers of DNA are nucleotides . Each DNA nucleotide consists of a purine (A - adenine or G - guanine) or pyrimidine (T - thymine or C - cytosine) nitrogenous base, five carbon sugar– deoxyribose and phosphate group.

The nucleotides in a DNA molecule face each other with nitrogenous bases and are united in pairs in accordance with the rules of complementarity: thymine is located opposite adenine, and cytosine is located opposite guanine.

The A – T pair is connected by two hydrogen bonds, and the G – C pair is connected by three. During the replication (doubling) of a DNA molecule, hydrogen bonds are broken and the chains separate, and a new DNA chain is synthesized on each of them. The backbone of DNA chains is formed by sugar phosphate residues.

The sequence of nucleotides in a DNA molecule determines its specificity, as well as the specificity of the body proteins that are encoded by this sequence.

These sequences are individual for each type of organism and for individual individuals.

Example: the DNA nucleotide sequence is given: CGA – TTA – CAA.

On messenger RNA (i-RNA), the chain HCU - AAU - GUU will be synthesized, resulting in a chain of amino acids: alanine - asparagine - valine.

When nucleotides in one of the triplets are replaced or rearranged, this triplet will encode a different amino acid, and therefore the protein encoded by this gene will change.

Slide 14

Changes in the composition of nucleotides or their sequence are called mutation.

Slide 15

Ribonucleic acid (RNA)– a linear polymer consisting of a single chain of nucleotides.

In RNA, the thymine nucleotide is replaced by uracil (U). Each RNA nucleotide contains a five-carbon sugar - ribose, one of the four nitrogenous bases and the residue phosphoric acid.

Types of RNA.

Matrix, or informational, RNA.

It is synthesized in the nucleus with the participation of the enzyme RNA polymerase. Complementary to the region of DNA where synthesis occurs. Its function is to remove information from DNA and transfer it to the place of protein synthesis - to ribosomes.

Makes up 5% of the cell's RNA. Ribosomal RNA– synthesized in the nucleolus and is part of the ribosomes. Makes up 85% of the cell's RNA.

Transfer RNA(more than 40 species). Transports amino acids to the site of protein synthesis.

It has the shape of a clover leaf and consists of 70-90 nucleotides.

Slide 16

Adenosine triphosphoric acid - ATP. ATP is a nucleotide consisting of a nitrogenous base - adenine, the carbohydrate ribose and three phosphoric acid residues, two of which store a large amount of energy. When one phosphoric acid residue is eliminated, 40 kJ/mol of energy is released.

Compare this figure with the figure indicating the amount of energy released by 1 g of glucose or fat. The ability to store such an amount of energy makes ATP its universal source.

Physicochemical features of the water molecule

ATP synthesis occurs mainly in mitochondria.

Slide 17

II. Metabolism: energy and plastic metabolism, their relationship. Enzymes, their chemical nature, role in metabolism. Stages of energy metabolism. Fermentation and respiration. Photosynthesis, its significance, cosmic role. Phases of photosynthesis. Light and dark reactions of photosynthesis, their relationship.

Chemosynthesis. The role of chemosynthetic bacteria on Earth

Slide 18

What could be simpler than water?We drink it, bathe in it, cook with it. Our life would be completely impossible without her. And at the same time, this “familiar” water is the most mysterious Chemical substance on the planet.
“Living” and “dead” water, its origin, reasons for the transition to others states of aggregation– these questions have interested people for a long time.

One of the most “miraculous” properties of water is its ability to dissolve substances.

Fantastic
sky power

We look at a mountain spring and think: “This is truly clean water!” However, this is not the case: perfect clean water does not happen in nature. The fact is that water is an almost universal solvent.

Gases are dissolved in it: nitrogen, oxygen, argon, carbon dioxide - and other impurities found in the air. The properties of the solvent are especially pronounced in sea ​​water, in which almost all substances dissolve. It is generally accepted that almost all elements of the table of the periodic system of elements can be dissolved in the waters of the World Ocean. By at least, more than 80 of them have been discovered today, including rare and radioactive elements.

The greatest quantities in sea water contain chlorine, sodium, magnesium, sulfur, calcium, potassium, bromine, carbon, strontium, boron. Gold alone is dissolved in the World Ocean at a rate of 3 kg per capita of the Earth's population!

There is also always something dissolved in earthly water.

Rainwater is considered the purest but it also dissolves impurities in the air. Do not think that water only dissolves easily soluble substances.

For example, analytical chemists claim that water even slightly dissolves glass. If you grind glass powder with water in a mortar, then in the presence of an indicator (phenolphthalein) a pink color will appear - a sign alkaline environment. Consequently, the water partially dissolved the glass and the alkali entered the solution (it’s not for nothing that chemists call this process glass leaching).

Occupier-
chemistry

Why can water dissolve such different substances?

From the chemistry course we know that the water molecule is electrically neutral. But the electric charge inside the molecule is distributed unevenly: in the region of hydrogen atoms, positive charge predominates, in the region where oxygen is located, the density of negative charge is higher.

Therefore, a water particle is a dipole. This property of the water molecule explains its ability to orient itself in an electric field and attach to other molecules that carry a charge. If the energy of attraction of water molecules to molecules of a substance is greater than the energy of attraction between water molecules, then the substance dissolves. Depending on this, a distinction is made between hydrophilic (highly soluble in water: salts, alkalis, acids) and hydrophobic (substances that are difficult or not at all soluble in water: fats, rubber, etc.).

Thus, the “vaccine” against dissolution in water is the fat content in the substance. It is no coincidence that the cells human body have membranes containing fatty components. Thanks to this, water does not dissolve the human body, but promotes its vital activity.

Concrete and composite –
which is stronger?

What does this information have to do with swimming pools?

The fact is that the ability of water to dissolve many substances negatively affects concrete pools. Water is necessary to hydrate the cement. However, after its evaporation, voids and pores appear in the concrete structure. This leads to an increase in the permeability of concrete to gases, vapor and liquid.

As a result, water gets into the pores of the concrete pool, it undergoes leaching and subsequently simply cracks.

Composite pools have a great advantage over their concrete counterparts. A composite is a heterogeneous solid material consisting of two or more components. The main strength of composite products comes from fiberglass, that is, fiber made from thin glass threads. In this form, glass exhibits unexpected properties: does not break, does not break, but bends without destruction.

Test for grade 10 (profile). Cytology. Chemical organization of the cell

Polymer organic resins are used as a binder filler in the manufacture of the composite, which prevent the penetration of water into the pores of the substance. Thanks to this, composite pools are practically not subject to aging and are resistant to the effects of an essential, but so destructive substance - water.

It seems that there are practically no obstacles for the almighty water.

Over time, absolutely any material lends itself to it.
But if you need to choose a material for a pool, then it is quite obvious which one: concrete or composite - will be your reliable assistant in the fight against the destructive power of water.

Why do people need carbohydrates?

All living organisms in nature, whether plants or animals, contain carbohydrates - the main source of energy. The largest amount of them is present in plant cells (up to 90%) and 1 - 2% in animal cells.

The human body has 2-3% of these organic compounds, mainly glycogen, and only 5 grams of glucose.

The peculiarities of carbohydrates are that they consist of long molecular plexuses, and the composition of the molecules themselves is atoms of carbon, oxygen and hydrogen.

Sunlight promotes photosynthesis of carbohydrates in vegetation in the presence of water and carbon dioxide. The bulk of these substances enters the human body mainly from plant foods, but the body itself synthesizes them, albeit in an insignificant amount.

The role of carbohydrates for a person is to provide his body with energy, which is about 60% of the total energy consumption during the day.

Main types of carbohydrates

Depending on their properties, carbohydrates are divided into simple (monosaccharides and disaccharides) and complex (polysaccharides).

The first group is also called fast carbohydrates, since they dissolve well in water and literally raise blood glucose levels in a matter of minutes.

Complex carbohydrates are accordingly called slow, since they dissolve at a slower rate.

Of the simple substances, the most important are glucose, ribose, fructose and galactose.

Of particular value as monosaccharides is glucose, which provides energy to cells.

Thanks to metabolic processes in the body it is converted into carbon dioxide and water. A deviation in blood glucose levels in one direction or another leads to drowsiness, even loss of consciousness. Its low level causes a feeling of fatigue and weakness, while significantly reducing mental capacity person.

Glucose is found in cereals, grain products, and many vegetables and fruits.

Ribose is a chemical analogue of glucose, which is present in all cells of the body in the structure of nucleic acids and affects metabolism.

It is used as food supplement in sports nutrition.

Fructose is found in almost all fruits and honey, but in vegetables it is much less. It easily penetrates cells from the blood without insulin, which fundamentally distinguishes it from glucose. Due to this property, fructose is considered safe for diabetes. In addition, this element does not lead to caries, unlike sucrose.

Galactose forms a disaccharide with glucose called lactose and is found primarily in dairy products and milk.

IN pure form galactose is not found.

Once in the gastrointestinal tract, lactose contained in milk breaks down into glucose and galactose thanks to the enzyme lactase. A deficiency of this enzyme causes increased gas formation in the intestines after drinking milk due to undigested lactose. It is useful for people with this property of the body to consume fermented milk products, where lactose is converted into lactic acid, which neutralizes intestinal microflora.

Complex carbohydrates include sucrose, maltose, starch, glycogen, inulin, cellulose and others.

Sucrose, consisting of glucose and fructose molecules, is a pure carbohydrate, namely sugar, which contains no calories other than calories. useful substances, no vitamins, no minerals.

Maltose is also called malt sugar because it is found in malt, honey, beer and molasses.

It is formed by two glucose molecules.

Starch is a long molecular chain made up of glucose.

Water is a 100% solvent!

This is powder white odorless and tasteless, insoluble in water. Many grains and root vegetables contain large amounts of starch, which is the main battery of human energy. At the same time, modern medicine considers it to be the culprit of improper metabolism.

Inulin is a polymer of fructose used to prevent diabetes. Contained in Jerusalem artichoke and some other plants.

Glycogen is also formed from glucose molecules arranged in dense branches.

A small percentage of it is found in the liver and muscles of animals.

Biological important functions of carbohydrates

What are carbohydrates for and what is their importance for human body?

Perhaps the main important function of carbohydrates is their energy value, since each gram of this substance, when oxidized, forms more than 4 kcal of energy.

Considering that the human muscles and liver contain about 0.5 kg of glycogen, which is equal to 2000 kcal of energy necessary for the functioning of all tissues of the body and especially the brain.

Lack of glycogen in food, which is chronic, leads to disruption of the liver due to the accumulation of fat in it.

Subsequently, a deficiency of carbohydrates in the diet leads to intense oxidation of fats and acidification (poisoning) of the entire body and brain tissue. The result may be loss of consciousness due to acidotic coma.

Excess carbohydrates will also contribute to the accumulation excess fat and cholesterol due to high levels of glucose and insulin in the blood.

Of course, the role of carbohydrates for human life is great, but their energy value should be no more than 50% of the total calorie content of food.

When proteins are exposed to high levels of glucose for a long time, their function and structure change.

Glycosylation of proteins occurs, causing a number of complications in diabetes mellitus.

A healthy person should consume carbohydrates in the first half of the day.

In the following hours, the formation and accumulation of these substances in the body gradually decreases.

To the people leading active image life, as well as those involved in sports, bodybuilding or fitness, should eat food half consisting of carbohydrates. Fewer carbohydrates are recommended for those who have excess weight.

The functions of carbohydrates in the cells of living organisms are different. In addition to energy, these are also reserve (storage), structural, protective, anticoagulant and other functions.

Carbohydrates are organic compounds that consist of one or more simple sugar molecules. They can be classified into three groups - monosaccharides, oligosaccharides and polysaccharides. They all differ in the composition of sugar molecules and have different effects on the body. What are insoluble carbohydrates for? Conventionally, these organic compounds can be divided into water-insoluble and soluble carbohydrates. Soluble carbohydrates include monosaccharides. But only if they have an alpha configuration. These elements are easily digested in the digestive tract. Insoluble carbohydrates are referred to as fiber, which includes cellulose, hemicellulose, pectin, gums, vegetable glue and lignin. All of these supplements have different Chemical properties and are used to prevent diseases in animals.

Insoluble carbohydrates include monosaccharides that have a beta configuration, since they are much more resistant to digestive enzymes. Volatile fatty acids (VFA) are one of the most important sources of energy for the body. But it should be noted that only for herbivores, since meat eaters digestive processes limited, and these acids do not represent for them energy value. Feeds with such additives are mainly given to those animals that need to reduce overweight. If an animal's diet is not dominated by carbohydrates, it does not significantly affect its body, since it can use body proteins to create glucose.

Which carbohydrates are insoluble in water? These include starch, cellulose, chitin and glycogen. All of them perform the function of structuring, protecting and storing energy in the body. Why do we need carbohydrates? Carbohydrates are an integral part of the human body that allows it to function. Thanks to them, a living organism is filled with energy for further life activity. It is thanks to these organic compounds that glucose levels do not affect the release of insulin into the blood, and this in turn does not lead to more serious consequences.

Basically, all consumed carbohydrates dissolve in water and enter the human body with food. However, it is necessary to remember that it is necessary to regulate the carbohydrates consumed, since their deficiency or excess can lead to undesirable consequences. An excess of these substances can lead to a variety of diseases, ranging from cardiovascular to diabetes. A deficiency, on the contrary, provokes disturbances in fat metabolism, low sugar levels and many other diseases. phrase 1: carbohydrates are insoluble in water phrase 2: which carbohydrates are insoluble in water phrase 3: carbohydrates are soluble in water

Carbohydrates provide the body with energy and play important role in regulation of activities gastrointestinal tract. Carbohydrates are divided into two groups depending on their solubility: soluble And insoluble carbohydrates.

Monosaccharides may have alpha or beta configuration. Carbohydrates consisting of α-monosaccharides, are easily digested by enzymes in the digestive tract of animals and are classified as soluble carbohydrates.

Carbohydrates consisting of β-monosaccharides, are resistant to the action of endogenous digestive enzymes and are classified as insoluble carbohydrates. However, in some animal species, microorganisms in the digestive tract produce the enzyme cellulase, which breaks down insoluble carbohydrates into CO 2, flammable gases and volatile fatty acids.

Volatile fatty acids(VFA) are the most important energy source for herbivores. Non-herbivores, such as dogs, have limited microbial digestive processes, so insoluble carbohydrates have no energy value. They reduce the energy nutritional value of the diet.

Therefore, feeds containing high level insoluble carbohydrates, should not be used for dogs with high energy needs (growth, late stages pregnancy, lactation, stress, work). At the same time, such feeds are successfully used to reduce and control excess body weight in animals prone to obesity.

Alpha bonds in all carbohydrates, with the exception of disaccharides, are broken down by the digestive enzyme - amylase. This enzyme is secreted by the pancreas and, in some animal species, is also secreted in small quantities by the salivary glands.

Disaccharides (maltose, sucrose, lactose) are broken down into monosaccharides using special enzymes - disaccharidases, such as: maltase, isomaltase, sucrase And lactase. These enzymes are contained in the villi of the brush border. epithelial cells intestines. If the brush border structure is damaged or these cells lack these enzymes, then animals are unable to metabolize disaccharides.

With this pathology, disaccharides remain in the intestine and are used by bacteria, stimulating their reproduction and increasing the osmolarity of the intestinal contents, which leads to the release of water into the intestinal lumen and diarrhea (diarrhea). Feeds containing disaccharides, such as milk containing lactose, lead to increased diarrhea if used to feed sick animals.

Soluble carbohydrates are a readily available source of energy and are found in fairly high proportions in many diets, except those that consist almost entirely of meat, fish or animal tissue. When there is an excess content of soluble carbohydrates in the diet, some of the carbohydrates are stored in the body in the form of glycogen or adipose tissue for later use. Therefore, excess carbohydrates in the diet predisposes animals to obesity.

In the absence of carbohydrates in the diet of animals, the concentration of glucose in their blood does not decrease and there is no energy deficiency, since body proteins and glycerol can be used to form glucose, and fat and proteins are used as energy substances.

The digestibility of glucose, sucrose, lactose, dextrin and starch mixed with animal tissues with a properly formulated diet can reach 94%. However, the digestibility of soluble carbohydrates in industrial feed of average quality does not exceed 85%.

Although dogs are able to partially digest the raw starch contained in cereals, its digestibility increases significantly with heat treatment carried out during the preparation of food using a certain technology.

Insoluble carbohydrates, under common name "alimentary fiber" or "cellulose", include cellulose, hemicellulose, pectin, gums, mucilage And lignin(being a structural element of plants).

Different fractions of dietary fiber differ significantly in their physical and chemical properties. Adding them to food is useful for many diseases, as well as for diarrhea and constipation. Their positive effect is associated with the ability of fibers to retain water and influence the composition of the microflora of the large intestine. Dietary fiber helps to irritate the receptors of the large intestine and stimulate the act of defecation, and also contribute to the formation of more voluminous and soft stool.

Dietary fiber can also affect lipid and carbohydrate metabolism. Pectin and gums can inhibit lipid absorption, thereby increasing the secretion of cholesterol and bile acids and reducing blood lipid concentrations, while cellulose has a very weak effect on serum cholesterol concentrations.

Dietary fiber may have big influence on the level of glucose and insulin in the blood, which has important in animals with diabetes.

A decrease in the concentration of insulin and glucose in the blood occurs as a result of decreased absorption of glucose in the intestine, slower gastric emptying and changes in the level of secretion of gastrointestinal peptides.

Dietary fiber also affects the absorption of other nutrients. Thus, the higher the fiber content in the diet, the lower the absorption of proteins and energy. Effect of different dietary fibers on absorption minerals not the same. For example, pectin reduces the absorption of some minerals, while cellulose does not affect this process. Therefore, a diet with high content pectins without appropriate mineral supplements can lead to a lack of microelements in the body of animals.

If there is too much fiber in the diet, dogs may experience energy deficiency.

Sources

1. "SMALL ANIMAL CLINICAL NUTRITION" L.D. Lewis, M. L. Morris (JR), M. S. Hand, MARK MORRIS ASSOCIATES TOPEKA, KANSAS 1987 (Translation from English and editing by Doctor of Biological Sciences A. S. Erokhin)
2. Feeding dogs. Directory. S.N. Khokhrin, “VSV-Sphinx”, 1996
3. Absolutely everything about your dog, composition. V.N.Zubko M.: Arnadia, 1996

Carbohydrate metabolism

Carbohydrates- an extensive group of organic compounds that are part of all living organisms.

The term “carbohydrates” arose because the first known representatives of carbohydrates in composition corresponded to the chemical formula C m H 2n O n (carbon + water). Subsequently, natural carbohydrates with a different elemental composition were discovered, but the previous name was retained.

Carbohydrates are divided into two groups depending on their solubility: soluble and insoluble.

Soluble carbohydrates, or Sahara, usually have a sweet taste and a crystalline structure. This:

• beet or cane sugar, orsucrose(Greek sakchar, from Sanskrit. sarkara- gravel, sand, granulated sugar);
• grape sugar, orglucose(Greek glykys- sweet);
• fruit sugar, orfructose(lat. fructus- fruit);
• milk sugar, orlactose(lat. lac, genus. case lactis- milk) etc.

Insoluble carbohydrates, or polysaccharides, do not have a sweet taste and crystalline structure. For example:

• starch;
• cellulose(lat. cellula- cell);
• glycogen(Greek glykys- sweet and genes- giving birth).

Functions of carbohydrates

1. Energy. Carbohydrates ( Sahara, starch, glycogen) is the main source of energy in the cell. When 1 g of carbohydrates is broken down into final metabolic products, 17.6 kJ of energy is released (the same as when 1 g of protein is broken down).

2. Storage (backup). The reserve carbohydrate in humans and other animals isglycogen, which is synthesized and accumulated in liver cells. The storage carbohydrate of plants is carbohydratestarch.

3. Structural (construction). From cellulosewhat the cell walls of plants are made of. Enzymes in the human digestive tract are not able to break down cellulose, so it does not have nutritional value as a source of energy, however, cellulose fibers have a beneficial effect on intestinal function. Some animals (termites, ruminants) contain special symbiotic protozoa in their intestines that decompose strong cellulose molecules into glucose molecules. That is why termites are able to feed on wood, hares on bark, and ruminants on hay, branches, and straw.

Carbohydrates are also part of nucleic acids and form the intercellular substance of connective tissue (in animals).

4. Protective. They interact in the liver with many toxic compounds, converting them into harmless and easily soluble substances.

Carbohydrates in human food. Carbohydrates provide the body with energy and play an important role in regulating the gastrointestinal tract. The main sources of carbohydrates are bread, potatoes, pasta, cereals, fruits, and sweets. Sugar is a pure carbohydrate. Honey, depending on its origin, contains 70 - 80% sugar.

All carbohydrates are divided into easily- And difficult to digest, and indigestible.

Easily digestible carbohydrates- sugars - found in all sweet foods and drinks (sugar, honey, sweets, juices, fruits). They contribute rapid recovery strength, however, it is necessary to consume easily digestible carbohydrates with caution, since their excessive amounts lead to obesity and the development of diabetes.

Hard-to-digest carbohydrates- This is mainly starch. The optimal source of difficult-to-digest, but most healthy carbohydrates- These are cereals, potatoes, bread and pasta. They slowly and evenly deliver glucose into the blood and promote accumulation in the liver glycogen, which is the main reserve of carbohydrates in the human body. In addition, whole grain cereals and flakes contain a lot of dietary fiber, which absorbs toxins well and helps move food through the digestive canal. That is why wheat, buckwheat, corn and oatmeal are very healthy.

Indigestible carbohydrates, the so-called dietary fiber (dietary fiber, cellulose), is found in vegetables and grains, especially in cabbage and bran. Indigestible carbohydrates are not destroyed by digestive juices and pass through the human intestines unchanged. Although they do not provide the body with energy, they must be contained in food, as they contribute to normal operation intestines and have a positive effect on the composition of the intestinal microflora.

Recommended daily intake of carbohydrates- the most unstable quantity. It depends on the level physical activity, gender, age, food traditions, etc. The approximate norm is the consumption of 300 - 350 g of carbohydrates per day.

When there is an excess amount of carbohydrates in the diet, some of them are stored in the body in the form of glycogen and adipose tissue for later use. Therefore, an excess of carbohydrates in the diet contributes to obesity.

Organic compounds that are the main source of energy are called carbohydrates. The most common sugars found in food plant origin. A deficiency of carbohydrates can cause liver dysfunction, and an excess of them causes an increase in insulin levels. Let's talk about sugars in more detail.

What are carbohydrates?

These are organic compounds that contain a carbonyl group and several hydroxyl groups. They are part of the tissues of organisms and are also an important component of cells. There are mono-, oligo- and polysaccharides, as well as more complex carbohydrates such as glycolipids, glycosides and others. Carbohydrates are a product of photosynthesis, as well as the main starting material for the biosynthesis of other compounds in plants. Due to the wide variety of compounds, this class is capable of playing multifaceted roles in living organisms. By undergoing oxidation, carbohydrates provide energy to all cells. They participate in the development of immunity and are also part of many cellular structures.

Types of sugars

Organic compounds are divided into two groups - simple and complex. Carbohydrates of the first type are monosaccharides that contain a carbonyl group and are derivatives of polyhydric alcohols. The second group includes oligosaccharides and polysaccharides. The first consist of monosaccharide residues (from two to ten), which are connected by a glycosidic bond. The latter may contain hundreds and even thousands of monomers. The table of carbohydrates that are most often found is as follows:

1. Glucose.
2. Fructose.
3. Galactose.
4. Sucrose.
5. Lactose.
6. Maltose.
7. Raffinosa.
8. Starch.
9. Cellulose.
10. Chitin.
11. Muramin.
12. Glycogen.

The list of carbohydrates is extensive. Let's look at some of them in more detail.

Simple group of carbohydrates

Depending on the place occupied by the carbonyl group in the molecule, two types of monosaccharides are distinguished - aldoses and ketoses. The first functional group is aldehydic, while the latter is ketonic. Depending on the number of carbon atoms included in the molecule, the name of the monosaccharide is formed. For example, aldohexoses, aldotetroses, ketotrioses, and so on. These substances are most often colorless and poorly soluble in alcohol, but soluble in water. Simple carbohydrates in foods are solid and do not hydrolyze during digestion. Some of the representatives have a sweet taste.

Group representatives

What are simple carbohydrates? Firstly, it is glucose, or aldohexose. It exists in two forms - linear and cyclic. The second form most accurately describes the chemical properties of glucose. Aldohexose contains six carbon atoms. The substance has no color, but it tastes sweet. It dissolves well in water. You can find glucose almost everywhere. It exists in plant and animal organs, as well as in fruits. In nature, aldohexose is formed during photosynthesis.

Secondly, it is galactose. The substance differs from glucose in the spatial arrangement of the hydroxyl and hydrogen groups at the fourth carbon atom in the molecule. Has a sweet taste. It is found in animal and plant organisms, as well as in some microorganisms.

And the third representative of simple carbohydrates is fructose. The substance is the sweetest sugar obtained in nature. It is present in vegetables, fruits, berries, honey. It is easily absorbed by the body and is quickly eliminated from the blood, which makes it suitable for use by patients with diabetes. Fructose is low in calories and does not cause tooth decay.

Foods rich in simple sugars

1. 90 g - corn syrup.
2. 50 g - refined sugar.
3. 40.5 g - honey.
4. 24 g - figs.
5. 13 g - dried apricots.
6. 4 g - peaches.

The daily intake of this substance should not exceed 50 g. As for glucose, in this case the ratio will be slightly different:

1. 99.9 g - refined sugar.
2. 80.3 g - honey.
3. 69.2 g - dates.
4. 66.9 g - pearl barley.
5. 61.8 g - oat flakes.
6. 60.4 g - buckwheat.

To calculate the daily intake of a substance, you need to multiply your weight by 2.6. Simple sugars provide energy to the human body and help cope with various toxins. But we must not forget that with any use there must be moderation, otherwise serious consequences won't make you wait long.

Oligosaccharides

The most common species in this group are disaccharides. What are carbohydrates containing several monosaccharide residues? They are glycosides containing monomers. Monosaccharides are linked together by a glycosidic bond, which is formed as a result of the combination of hydroxyl groups. Based on their structure, disaccharides are divided into two types: reducing and non-reducing. The first includes maltose and lactose, and the second includes sucrose. The reducing type has good solubility and a sweet taste. Oligosaccharides can contain more than two monomers. If the monosaccharides are the same, then such a carbohydrate belongs to the group of homopolysaccharides, and if they are different, then to heteropolysaccharides. An example of the latter type is the trisaccharide raffinose, which contains glucose, fructose and galactose residues.

Lactose, maltose and sucrose

The latter substance dissolves well and has a sweet taste. Sugar cane and beets are sources of the disaccharide. In the body, during hydrolysis, sucrose breaks down into glucose and fructose. The disaccharide is found in large quantities in refined sugar (99.9 g per 100 g of product), prunes (67.4 g), grapes (61.5 g) and other products. With an excess intake of this substance, the ability to turn into fat increases in almost all nutrients. Blood cholesterol levels also increase. Large amounts of sucrose negatively affect intestinal flora.

Milk sugar, or lactose, is found in milk and its derivatives. The carbohydrate is broken down into galactose and glucose thanks to a special enzyme. If it is not in the body, then milk intolerance occurs. Malt sugar or maltose is an intermediate product of the breakdown of glycogen and starch. IN food products the substance is found in malt, molasses, honey and sprouted grains. The composition of carbohydrates lactose and maltose is represented by monomer residues. Only in the first case they are D-galactose and D-glucose, and in the second the substance is represented by two D-glucoses. Both carbohydrates are reducing sugars.

Polysaccharides

What are complex carbohydrates? They differ from each other in several ways:

1. According to the structure of the monomers included in the chain.

2. According to the order in which the monosaccharides are found in the chain.

3. By the type of glycosidic bonds that connect monomers.

As with oligosaccharides, homo- and heteropolysaccharides can be distinguished in this group. The first includes cellulose and starch, and the second includes chitin and glycogen. Polysaccharides are an important source of energy that is formed as a result of metabolism. They are involved in immune processes, as well as in the adhesion of cells in tissues.

List complex carbohydrates represented by starch, cellulose and glycogen, we will look at them in more detail. One of the main suppliers of carbohydrates is starch. These are compounds that include hundreds of thousands of glucose residues. The carbohydrate is born and stored in the form of grains in the chloroplasts of plants. Thanks to hydrolysis, starch turns into water-soluble sugars, which facilitates free movement throughout parts of the plant. Once in the human body, the carbohydrate begins to disintegrate in the mouth. The largest amounts of starch are contained in cereal grains, tubers and plant bulbs. In the diet, it accounts for about 80% of the total amount of carbohydrates consumed. The largest amount of starch, per 100 g of product, is found in rice - 78 g. Slightly less in pasta and millet - 70 and 69 g. One hundred grams rye bread includes 48 g of starch, and in the same serving of potatoes its amount reaches only 15 g. Daily requirement the human body in this carbohydrate is 330-450 g.

Cereal products also contain fiber, or cellulose. The carbohydrate is part of the cell walls of plants. His contribution is 40-50%. A person is not able to digest cellulose, since there is no necessary enzyme that would carry out the hydrolysis process. But soft types of fiber, such as potatoes and vegetables, can be absorbed well in the digestive tract. What is the content of this carbohydrate in 100 g of food? Rye and wheat bran are the richest foods in fiber. Their content reaches 44 g. Cocoa powder includes 35 g of nutritious carbohydrates, and dried mushrooms only 25. Rose hips and ground coffee contain 22 and 21 g. One of the richest fruits in fiber are apricots and figs. The carbohydrate content in them reaches 18 g. A person needs to eat up to 35 g of cellulose per day. Moreover, the greatest need for carbohydrate occurs between the ages of 14 and 50 years.

The polysaccharide glycogen is used as an energy material for good functioning of muscles and organs. It has no nutritional value, since its content in food is extremely low. The carbohydrate is sometimes called animal starch due to its similar structure. In this form, glucose is stored in animal cells (in greatest quantities in the liver and muscles). In the liver of adults, the amount of carbohydrate can reach up to 120 g. The leaders in glycogen content are sugar, honey and chocolate. Also high content Dates, raisins, marmalade, sweet straws, bananas, watermelon, persimmons and figs can boast of carbohydrates. Daily norm glycogen is equal to 100 g per day. If a person plays sports intensively or does a lot of work related to mental activity, the amount of carbohydrate should be increased. Glycogen is an easily digestible carbohydrate that is stored in reserve, which means it is used only when there is a lack of energy from other substances.

Polysaccharides also include the following substances:

1. Chitin. It is part of the horny membranes of arthropods, is present in fungi, lower plants and invertebrate animals. The substance plays the role of a supporting material and also performs mechanical functions.

2. Muramin. It is present as a mechanical support material for the bacterial cell wall.

3. Dextrans. Polysaccharides act as substitutes for blood plasma. They are obtained by the action of microorganisms on a sucrose solution.

4. Pectin substances. When combined with organic acids, they can form jelly and marmalade.

Proteins and carbohydrates. Products. List

The human body needs a certain amount of nutrients every day. For example, carbohydrates should be consumed at a rate of 6-8 g per 1 kg of body weight. If a person leads an active lifestyle, the amount will increase. Carbohydrates are almost always contained in foods. Let's make a list of their presence per 100 g of food:

1. The largest amounts (more than 70 g) are found in sugar, muesli, marmalade, starch and rice.
2. From 31 to 70 g - in flour and confectionery products, pasta, cereals, dried fruits, beans and peas.
3. From 16 to 30 g of carbohydrates contain bananas, ice cream, rose hips, potatoes, tomato paste, compotes, coconut, sunflower seeds and cashew nuts.
4. From 6 to 15 g - in parsley, dill, beets, carrots, gooseberries, currants, beans, fruits, nuts, corn, beer, pumpkin seeds, dried mushrooms and so on.
5. Up to 5 g of carbohydrates are found in green onions, tomatoes, zucchini, pumpkins, cabbage, cucumbers, cranberries, dairy products, eggs, and so on.

The nutrient should not enter the body less than 100 g per day. Otherwise, the cell will not receive the energy it needs. The brain will not be able to perform its functions of analysis and coordination, therefore the muscles will not receive commands, which will ultimately lead to ketosis.

We explained what carbohydrates are, but besides them, proteins are an essential substance for life. They are a chain of amino acids linked by a peptide bond. Depending on their composition, proteins differ in their properties. For example, these substances play the role building material, since every cell of the body includes them in its composition. Some types of proteins are enzymes and hormones, as well as a source of energy. They influence the development and growth of the body, regulate acid-base and water balance.

The table of carbohydrates in food showed that in meat and fish, as well as in some types of vegetables, their number is minimal. What is the protein content in food? The richest product is food gelatin; per 100 g it contains 87.2 g of the substance. Next comes mustard (37.1 g) and soy (34.9 g). The ratio of proteins and carbohydrates in daily consumption per 1 kg of weight should be 0.8 g and 7 g. For better absorption of the first substance, it is necessary to take food in which it is taken light form. This applies to proteins that are present in fermented milk products and in eggs. Proteins and carbohydrates do not combine well in one meal. The table on separate meals shows which variations are best avoided:

1. Rice with fish.
2. Potatoes and chicken.
3. Pasta and meat.
4. Sandwiches with cheese and ham.
5. Breaded fish.
6. Nut brownies.
7. Omelet with ham.
8. Flour with berries.
9. Melon and watermelon should be eaten separately an hour before the main meal.

Go well with:

1. Meat with salad.
2. Fish with vegetables or grilled.
3. Cheese and ham separately.
4. Whole nuts.
5. Omelette with vegetables.

Rules separate power supply based on knowledge of the laws of biochemistry and information about the work of enzymes and food juices. For good digestion, any type of food requires an individual set of gastric fluids, a certain amount of water, an alkaline or acidic environment, and the presence or absence of enzymes. For example, food rich in carbohydrates requires digestive juice with alkaline enzymes that break down these organic substances for better digestion. And here's the food rich in proteins, already requires acidic enzymes... By following simple rules of product compliance, a person strengthens his health and maintains a constant weight, without the help of diets.

"Bad" and "good" carbohydrates

“Fast” (or “wrong”) substances are compounds that contain a small number of monosaccharides. Such carbohydrates can be quickly absorbed, increase blood sugar levels, and also increase the amount of insulin released. The latter lowers blood sugar levels by converting it into fat. Eating carbohydrates after lunch poses the greatest danger for a person watching their weight. At this time, the body is most prone to increasing fat mass. What exactly contains the wrong carbohydrates? Products listed below:

1. Confectionery.

3. Jam.

4. Sweet juices and compotes.

7. Potatoes.

8. Pasta.

9. White rice.

10. Chocolate.

These are mainly products that do not require long cooking. After such a meal, you need to move a lot, otherwise the excess weight will make itself felt.

“Proper” carbohydrates contain more than three simple monomers. They are absorbed slowly and do not cause a sharp rise in sugar. This type of carbohydrate contains a large amount of fiber, which is practically not digested. In this regard, a person remains full for a long time; additional energy is required to break down such food; in addition, the body is naturally cleansed. Let's make a list of complex carbohydrates, or rather, the foods in which they are found:

1. Bran and whole grain bread.
2. Buckwheat and oatmeal porridge.
3. Green vegetables.
4. Coarse pasta.
5. Mushrooms.
6. Peas.
7. Red beans.
8. Tomatoes.
9. Dairy products.
10. Fruits.
11. Bitter chocolate.
12. Berries.
13. Lentils.

To keep yourself in good shape, you need to eat more “good” carbohydrates in foods and as little “bad” ones as possible. The latter are best taken in the first half of the day. If you need to lose weight, it is better to exclude the use of “wrong” carbohydrates, since when using them a person receives food in a larger volume. The “right” nutrients are low in calories and can leave you feeling full for a long time. This does not mean a complete rejection of “bad” carbohydrates, but only their reasonable use.