The endocrine system performs the following functions in the body. Endocrine system of the human body

Let's list them in order from head to toe. So, the endocrine system of the body includes: pituitary gland, pineal gland, thyroid gland, thymus ( thymus), pancreas, adrenal glands, as well as sex glands - testicles or ovaries. Let's say a few words about each of them. But first, let's clarify the terminology.

The fact is that science distinguishes only two types of glands in the body - endocrine and exocrine. That is, the glands of internal and external secretion - because this is how these names are translated from Latin. Exocrine glands include, for example, sweat glands coming out in the pores! on the surface of the skin.

In other words, the exocrine glands of the body secrete the secretion produced on surfaces that are in direct contact with the environment. As a rule, the products of their production serve to bind, contain, and then remove molecules of potentially dangerous or useless substances. In addition, the layers that have fulfilled their purpose are eliminated by the body itself - as a result of the renewal of the cells of the outer cover of the organ.

Concerning endocrine glands, then they completely produce substances that serve to start or stop processes inside the body. The products of their secretion are subject to constant and complete use. Most often with the decay of the original molecule and its transformation into a completely different substance. Hormones (the so-called secretion products of the endocrine glands) are always in demand in the body because, when used for their intended purpose, they break down to form other molecules. That is, not a single hormone molecule can be reused by the body. Therefore, the endocrine glands should normally work continuously, often with an uneven load.

As you can see, in relation to the endocrine system, the body has a kind of conditioned reflex. An excess or, conversely, a deficiency of any hormones is unacceptable here. In itself, fluctuations in the level of hormones in the blood are quite normal. It all depends on what process needs to be activated now and how much it needs to be done. The decision to stimulate or suppress any process is made by the brain. More precisely,* the neurons of the hypothalamus surrounding the pituitary gland. They give a "command" to the pituitary gland, and he begins, in turn, "to manage" the work of the glands. This system the interaction of the hypothalamus with the pituitary gland is called in medicine hypothalamic-pituitary.

Naturally, situations in a person's life are different. And all of them affect the state and work of his body. And for the reaction and behavior of the body in certain circumstances, the brain is responsible - more precisely, its cortex. It is he who is designed to ensure the safety and stability of the state of the body under any external conditions. This is the essence of his daily work.

So, during a period of prolonged starvation, the brain must take a number of biological measures that would allow the body to wait out this time with minimal losses. And during periods of saturation, on the contrary, he must do everything so that the food is assimilated most fully and quickly. Therefore healthy endocrine system and knows how, so to speak, if necessary, to throw into the blood huge single doses of hormones. And tissue brushes, in turn, have the ability to absorb these stimulants in unlimited quantities. Without this combination effective work endocrine system loses its main meaning.

If now we understand why a single overdose of a hormone is an impossible phenomenon in principle, let's talk about the hormones themselves and the glands that produce them. Inside the brain tissue are two glands - the pituitary and pineal glands. Both are located within the midbrain. The pineal gland is in its part, which is called the epithalamus, and the pituitary gland is in the hypothalamus.

epiphysis produces mainly corticosteroid hormones. That is, hormones that control the activity of the cerebral cortex. Moreover, the hormones of the pineal gland regulate the degree of its activity depending on the time of day. The tissues of the pineal gland contain special cells - pinealocytes. The same cells are found in our skin and retina. Their main purpose is to record and transmit to the brain information about the level of illumination outside. That is, the amount of light that falls on them at a given time. And pinealocytes in the tissues of the pineal gland serve this gland so that it itself can alternately increase the synthesis of either serotonin or melatonin.

Serotonin and melatonin are the two main hormones of the pineal gland. The first is responsible for the concentrated, uniform activity of the cerebral cortex. It stimulates attention and thinking is not stressful, but, as it were, normal for the brain during wakefulness. As for melatonin, it is one of the sleep hormones. Thanks to him, the speed of passage of impulses along the nerve endings decreases, many physiological processes slow down and the person tends to sleep. Thus, the periods of wakefulness and sleep of the cerebral cortex depend on how accurately and correctly the pineal gland distinguishes the time of day.

Pituitary, as we have already found out, performs much more functions than the pineal gland. In general, this gland itself produces more than 20 hormones for various purposes. Due to the normal secretion of all its substances by the pituitary gland, it can partially compensate for the functions of the glands of the endocrine system subordinate to it. With the exception of the thymus and islet cells in the pancreas, since these two organs produce substances that the pituitary gland cannot synthesize.

Plus, with the help of the products of its own synthesis, the pituitary gland still has time, so to speak, to coordinate the activity of the rest of the endocrine glands of the body. Processes such as peristalsis of the stomach and intestines, hunger and thirst, heat and cold, metabolic rate in the body, growth and development of the skeleton depend on its proper operation, puberty, the ability to conceive, the rate of blood clotting, etc., etc.

Persistent dysfunction of the pituitary gland leads to large-scale disorders throughout the body. In particular, due to damage to the pituitary gland, it is possible to develop diabetes, which in no way depends on the state of the pancreatic tissues. Or chronic digestive dysfunction with initially perfectly healthy gastrointestinal tract Injuries to the pituitary gland significantly increase the clotting time of some blood proteins.

Next on our list thyroid. It is located in the upper front of the neck, right under the chin. Thyroid the shape resembles a butterfly much more than a shield. Because it is formed, like most glands, by two large lobes connected by an isthmus of the same tissue. Main purpose thyroid gland consists in the synthesis of hormones that regulate the rate of metabolism of substances, as well as the growth of cells in all tissues of the body, including bone.

In most cases, the thyroid gland produces hormones formed with the participation of iodine. Namely, thyroxine and its more active modification from a chemical point of view - triiodothyronine. In addition, part of the thyroid cells (parathyroid glands) synthesizes the hormone calcitonin, which serves as a catalyst for the reaction for the absorption of calcium and phosphorus molecules by the bones.

thymus located slightly lower - behind the flat sternum, which connects two rows of ribs, forming our chest. The thymus lobes are located under the upper part of the sternum - closer to the collarbones. Or rather, where the common larynx begins to bifurcate, turning into the trachea of the right and left lungs. This endocrine gland is an indispensable part of the immune system. It does not produce hormones, but special bodies of immunity - lymphocytes.

Lymphocytes, unlike leukocytes, are transported to tissues through the lymphatic rather than the bloodstream. Another important difference between thymus lymphocytes and leukocytes bone marrow is in their functional purpose. Leukocytes are not able to penetrate into the tissue cells themselves. Even if they are infected. Leukocytes are only able to recognize and destroy pathogens whose bodies are located in the intercellular space, blood and lymph.

For the timely detection and destruction of infected, old, incorrectly formed cells, it is not white blood cells that are responsible, but lymphocytes, which are produced and trained in the thymus. It should be added that each type of lymphocyte has its own not strict, but obvious "specialization". So, B-lymphocytes serve as a kind of indicators of infection. They detect the pathogen, determine its type and trigger the synthesis of proteins directed specifically against this invasion. T-lymphocytes regulate the speed and strength of the immune system's response to infection. And NK-lymphocytes are indispensable in cases where it is necessary to remove cells from tissues that are not infected, but defective, exposed to radiation or the action of toxic substances.

Pancreas located where indicated< в ее названии, - под сфинктером желудка, у начал а тонкого кишечника. В основном своем назначении она вырабатывает пищеварительные ферменты тонкого кишечника. Однако в массиве ее тканей имеются включения клеток другого типа, которые вырабатывают всем известный гормон инсулин. Инсулином он был назван потому, что группки производящих его клеток по виду напоминают островки. А в переводе с латинского языка слово insula и означает «остров».

It is known that all substances that come with food are broken down in the stomach and intestines into glucose molecules - the main source of energy for any body cell.

Assimilation of glucose by cells is possible only in the presence of insulin. Therefore, if there is a deficiency of this pancreatic hormone in the blood, a person eats, but his cells do not receive this food. This phenomenon is called diabetes mellitus.

Next: down we have the adrenal glands. If the kidneys themselves act as the main filters of the body and synthesize urine, then the adrenal glands are fully occupied with the production of hormones. Moreover, in terms of the direction of action, the hormones produced by the adrenal glands largely duplicate the work of the pituitary gland. Thus, the body of the adrenal glands is one of the main sources of stress hormones - dopamine, norepinephrine and adrenaline. And their bark is a source of corticosteroid hormones aldosterone, cortisol (hydrocortisone) and corticosterone. Among other things, in the body of each person, the adrenal glands synthesize a nominal amount of hormones of the opposite sex. Women have testosterone and men have estrogen.

And finally gonads. Their main purpose is obvious, and it consists in the synthesis enough sex hormones. Sufficient for the formation of an organism with all the signs of its gender and for further uninterrupted operation of the reproduction system. The difficulty here lies in the fact that in the body of both men and women, hormones of not one, but of both sexes are simultaneously produced. Only the main hormonal background is formed due to the work of the sex glands of the corresponding type (ovaries or testes), and the secondary one is due to the much lower activity of other glands.

For example, in women, testosterone is produced primarily in the adrenal glands. And estrogen in men is in the adrenal glands and body fat. The ability of fat cells to synthesize substances resembling hormones in properties was discovered relatively late - in the 1990s. Until that time adipose tissue considered to be an organ that takes minimal part in metabolism. Their role was assessed by science very simply - fat was considered a place of accumulation and storage of female sex hormones estrogen. This explains the high percentage of fatty tissues in a woman's body compared to men.

At present, the understanding of the biochemical role of adipose tissues in the body has expanded significantly. This happened due to the discovery of adipokines - hormone-like substances that synthesize fat cells. There are a lot of these substances, and their study has just begun. Nevertheless, it is already safe to say that among the adipokines there are substances that can increase the resistance of body cells to the action of the body's own insulin.

So, we already know that the endocrine system of the body includes seven endocrine glands. And, as we ourselves could see, there are strong relationships between them. Most of These relationships are formed by two factors. The first is that the work of all endocrine glands is coordinated and controlled by a common analytical center - the pituitary gland. This gland is located inside the tissues of the brain, and its work, in turn, is regulated by this particular organ. The latter becomes feasible due to the presence of a separate system of connections between the neurons of the hypothalamus and the cells of the pituitary gland, which is called the hypothalamic-pituitary.

And the second factor lies in the effect of duplication of the functions of many glands with each other, which we have clearly demonstrated. So, for example, the same pituitary gland not only regulates the activity of all elements of the endocrine system, but also synthesizes most of the same substances as they do. Similarly, the adrenal glands produce a number of hormones, which will be quite enough to continue the work of the cerebral cortex. Including with a complete failure of both the pituitary gland and the epiphysis. Similarly, the adrenal glands are able to change the content of the main hormonal background body in case of failure of the sex glands. This will happen due to their ability to produce hormones of the opposite sex.

As mentioned above, an exception in this system of mutually conditioned connections are two glands - the thymus and special cells in the pancreas that produce insulin. However, there are no really strict exceptions here. Thymus-produced lymphocytes are a very important part of the body's immune defenses. However, we understand that we are talking only about part of immunity, and not about it as a whole. With regard to islet cells, in fact, the mechanism for the absorption of sugar with the help of insulin in the body is not the only one. The liver and brain are organs that are able to absorb glucose even in the absence of this hormone. The only "but" is that the liver can only process a slightly different chemical modification of glucose, called fructose.

Thus, in the case of the endocrine system, the main difficulty is that most pathologies and medical effects simply cannot affect only one target organ. This is impossible because both similar cells in other glands and the pituitary gland, which fixes the level of each of the hormones in the patient's blood, will necessarily respond to such an impact.

Almost every tissue in the body contains endocrine cells.

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Introduction to the endocrine system

Biology lesson number 40. Endocrine (humoral) regulation of the body. glands.

Glands of external, internal and mixed secretion. Endocrine system

Endocrine system: central organs, structure, function, blood supply, innervation

4.1 Endocrine system - structure (grade 8) - biology, preparation for the exam and the exam 2017

Subtitles

I'm at Stanford Medical School with Neil Gesundheit, one of the faculty. Hello. What do we have today? Today we will talk about endocrinology, the science of hormones. The word "hormone" comes from Greek word meaning "stimulus". Hormones are chemical signals that are produced in certain organs and act on other organs, stimulating and controlling their activity. That is, they communicate between organs. Yes exactly. These are means of communication. Here's the right word. This is one of the types of communication in the body. For example, nerves lead to muscles. To contract a muscle, the brain sends a signal along the nerve that goes to the muscle, and it contracts. And hormones are more like Wi-Fi. No wires. Hormones are produced and carried by the bloodstream like radio waves. In this way, they act on widely located organs, without having a direct physical connection with them. Are hormones proteins or something else? What are these substances anyway? According to their chemical nature, they can be divided into two types. These are small molecules, usually derivatives of amino acids. Them molecular mass ranges from 300 to 500 daltons. And there are large proteins with hundreds of amino acids. Clear. That is, these are any signal molecules. Yes, they are all hormones. And they can be divided into three categories. There are endocrine hormones that are released into the bloodstream and work remotely. I'll give examples in just a minute. There are also paracrine hormones that have a local effect. They act at a short distance from the place where they were synthesized. And hormones of the third, rare category - autocrine hormones. They are produced by a cell and act on the same cell or a neighboring one, that is, at a very short distance. Clear. I would like to ask. About endocrine hormones. I know they are released somewhere in the body and bind to receptors, then they act. Paracrine hormones have a local effect. Is the action weaker? Usually, paracrine hormones enter the bloodstream, but their receptors are located very close. This arrangement of receptors determines the local nature of the action of paracrine hormones. It's the same with autocrine hormones: their receptors are located right on this cell. I have a stupid question: there are endocrinologists, but where are the paracrinologists? Good question, but they don't. Paracrine regulation was discovered later and studied within the framework of endocrinology. Clear. Endocrinology studies all hormones, not just endocrine ones. Exactly. Well said. This figure shows the main endocrine glands, which we will talk about a lot. The first is in the head, or rather in the region of the base of the brain. This is the pituitary gland. There he is. It is the main endocrine gland activity manager the rest of the glands. For example, one of the pituitary hormones is thyroid-stimulating hormone, TSH. It is secreted by the pituitary gland into the bloodstream and acts on the thyroid gland, where there are many receptors for it, forcing the production of thyroid hormones: thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3). These are the main thyroid hormones. What are they doing? Regulate metabolism, appetite, heat production, even muscle function. They have many different effects. They stimulate general exchange substances? Exactly. These hormones speed up the metabolism. High heart rate, fast metabolism, weight loss are signs of excess of these hormones. And if there are few of them, then the picture will be completely opposite. This is a good example of the fact that hormones should be exactly as much as needed. But back to the pituitary gland. He is in charge, sending orders to everyone. Exactly. He has Feedback in order to stop the production of TSH in time. Like a device, it monitors the level of hormones. When there are enough of them, it reduces the production of TSH. If there are few of them, it increases the production of TSH, stimulating the thyroid gland. Interesting. And what else? Well, signals to the rest of the glands. Except thyroid-stimulating hormone, the pituitary gland secretes adrenocorticotropic hormone, ACTH, affecting the adrenal cortex. The adrenal gland is located at the pole of the kidney. The outer layer of the adrenal gland is the cortex, which is stimulated by ACTH. It does not apply to the kidney, they are located separately. Yes. They are related to the kidney only by a very rich blood supply due to their proximity. Well, the kidney gave the gland its name. Well, it's obvious. Yes. But the functions of the kidney and adrenal gland are different. Clear. What is their function? They produce hormones such as cortisol, which regulate glucose metabolism, blood pressure and well-being. As well as mineralocorticoids, such as aldosterone, which regulates the water-salt balance. In addition, it releases important androgens. These are the three main hormones of the adrenal cortex. ACTH controls the production of cortisol and androgens. Let's talk about mineralocorticoids separately. What about the rest of the glands? Yes Yes. The pituitary gland also secretes luteinizing hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone, abbreviated as LH and FSH. Gotta write it down. They affect the testicles in men and the ovaries in women respectively, stimulating the production of germ cells, as well as the production of steroid hormones: testosterone in men and estradiol in women. Is there anything else? There are two more hormones from the anterior pituitary gland. It is a growth hormone that controls the growth of long bones. The pituitary gland is very important. Yes very. Is STG abbreviated? Yes. Somatotropic hormone, aka growth hormone. There is also prolactin, which is necessary for breastfeeding newborn baby. What about insulin? A hormone, but not from the pituitary gland, but at a lower level. Like the thyroid gland, the pancreas secretes its own hormones. In the tissue of the gland there are islets of Langerhans, which produce endocrine hormones: insulin and glucagon. Without insulin, diabetes develops. Without insulin, tissues cannot take up glucose from the bloodstream. In the absence of insulin, symptoms of diabetes occur. In the figure, the pancreas and adrenal glands are located close to each other. Why? Tooting. There's a good one venous return, which allows vital important hormones get into the blood faster. Interesting. I think that's enough for now. In the next video, we will continue this topic. OK. And we will talk about the regulation of hormone levels and pathologies. Good. Thanks a lot. And thank you.

Functions of the endocrine system

It takes part in the humoral (chemical) regulation of body functions and coordinates the activity of all organs and systems.
It ensures the preservation of the body's homeostasis under changing environmental conditions.
Together with the nervous and immune systems, it regulates:
- growth;
- body development;
- its sexual differentiation and reproductive function;
- takes part in the processes of formation, use and conservation of energy.
Together with the nervous system, hormones are involved in providing:
- emotional reactions;
- mental activity of a person.

glandular endocrine system

In the hypothalamus, the hypothalamic proper (vasopressin or antidiuretic hormone, oxytocin, neurotensin) and biologically active substances that depress or enhance secretory function pituitary gland (somatostatin, thyroliberin or thyrotropin-releasing hormone, luliberin or gonadoliberin or gonadotropin-releasing hormone, corticoliberin or corticotropin-releasing hormone and somatoliberin or somatotropin-releasing hormone). One of the most important glands body is the pituitary gland, which controls the work of most endocrine glands. The pituitary gland is small, weighing less than one gram, but very important for the life of iron. It is located in a depression at the base of the skull, connected to the hypothalamic region of the brain by a stalk and consists of three lobes - anterior (glandular, or adenohypophysis), middle or intermediate (it is less developed than others) and posterior (neurohypophysis). In terms of the importance of the functions performed in the body, the pituitary gland can be compared with the role of the conductor of an orchestra, which shows when this or that instrument should come into play. Hypothalamic hormones (vasopressin, oxytocin, neurotensin) flow down the pituitary stalk into the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland, where they are deposited and from where, if necessary, are released into the bloodstream. The hypophysiotropic hormones of the hypothalamus, being released into the portal system of the pituitary gland, reach the cells of the anterior pituitary gland, directly affecting their secretory activity, inhibiting or stimulating the secretion of tropic pituitary hormones, which, in turn, stimulate the work of the peripheral endocrine glands.

VIPoma;
Carcinoid;
Neurotensin;

Vipom's syndrome

Main article: VIPoma

VIPoma (Werner-Morrison syndrome, pancreatic cholera, watery diarrhea-hypokalemia-achlorhydria syndrome) is characterized by the presence of watery diarrhea and hypokalemia as a result of islet cell hyperplasia or a tumor, often malignant, originating from pancreatic islet cells (usually the body and tail), which secrete a vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP). In rare cases, VIPoma can occur in ganglioneuroblastomas, which are localized in the retroperitoneal space, lungs, liver, small intestine and adrenal glands, occur in childhood and are usually benign. The size of pancreatic VIPomas is 1…6 cm. In 60% of cases malignant neoplasms at the time of diagnosis there are metastases. The incidence of VIPoma is very low (1 case per year per 10 million people) or 2% of all endocrine tumors gastrointestinal tract . In half of the cases, the tumor is malignant. The prognosis is often unfavorable.

gastrinoma

Glucagonoma

Glucagonoma is a tumor, often malignant, originating from the alpha cells of the pancreatic islets. It is characterized by migratory erosive dermatosis, angular apapacheilitis, stomatitis, glossitis, hyperglycemia, normochromic anemia. It grows slowly, metastasizes to the liver. It occurs in 1 case in 20 million between the ages of 48 and 70, more often in women.

Carcinoid is a malignant tumor usually originating in the gastrointestinal tract that produces several hormone-like substances

Neurotensinoma

PPoma

Distinguish:

somatostatin from the delta cells of the pancreas and
apudoma secreting somatostatin - duodenal tumor.

The diagnosis is based on the clinic and an increase in the level of somatostatin in the blood. Treatment is surgical, chemotherapy and symptomatic. The prognosis depends on the timeliness of treatment.

The human endocrine system is an important department, in pathologies of which there is a change in the speed and nature of metabolic processes, the sensitivity of tissues decreases, the secretion and transformation of hormones is disturbed. Against the background of hormonal disruptions, sexual and reproductive function, appearance changes, working capacity, well-being worsens.

Every year, endocrine pathologies are increasingly being detected in patients. young age and children. The combination of environmental, industrial and other adverse factors with stress, overwork, hereditary predisposition increases the likelihood of chronic pathologies. It is important to know how to avoid development metabolic disorders, hormonal disruptions.

general information

The main elements are located in different parts of the body. - a special gland, in which not only the secretion of hormones occurs, but also the process of interaction between the endocrine and nervous systems for the optimal regulation of functions in all parts of the body.

The endocrine system ensures the transfer of information between cells and tissues, the regulation of the functioning of departments with the help of specific substances - hormones. Glands produce regulators with a certain frequency, in optimal concentration. The synthesis of hormones weakens or increases against the background of natural processes, for example, pregnancy, aging, ovulation, menstruation, lactation, or pathological changes of various nature.

Endocrine glands are formations and structures of various sizes that produce a specific secret directly into the lymph, blood, cerebrospinal, intercellular fluid. Absence of external ducts, as in the salivary glands - specific feature, on the basis of which, the hypothalamus, thyroid gland, pineal gland are called endocrine glands.

Classification of the endocrine glands:

central and peripheral. The separation is carried out by the connection of the elements with the central nervous system. Peripheral parts: sex glands, thyroid gland, pancreas. Central glands: epiphysis, pituitary gland, hypothalamus - parts of the brain;
pituitary independent and hypophysis dependent. The classification is based on the influence of the tropic hormones of the pituitary gland on the work of the elements of the endocrine system.

The structure of the endocrine system

The complex structure provides a diverse effect on organs and tissues. The system consists of several elements that regulate the functioning of a particular department of the body or several physiological processes.

The main divisions of the endocrine system:

diffuse system- glandular cells that produce substances that act like hormones;
local system- classic glands that produce hormones;
specific substance capture system- amine precursors and subsequent decarboxylation. Components - glandular cells producing biogenic amines and peptides.

Organs of the endocrine system (endocrine glands):

adrenal glands;
pituitary;
hypothalamus;
epiphysis;

Organs containing endocrine tissue:

testes, ovaries;
pancreas.

Organs containing endocrine cells:

thymus;
kidneys;
organs of the gastrointestinal tract;
central nervous system (the main role belongs to the hypothalamus);
placenta;
lungs;
prostate.

The body regulates the functions of the endocrine glands in several ways:

first. Direct influence on the tissue of the gland with the help of a specific component, for the level of which a certain hormone is responsible. For example, values decrease when increased secretion occurs in response to an increase in concentration. Another example is the suppression of secretion with an excess concentration of calcium acting on cells. parathyroid glands. If the concentration of Ca falls, then the production of parathyroid hormone, on the contrary, increases;
second. The hypothalamus and neurohormones carry out nervous regulation functions of the endocrine system. In most cases, nerve fibers affect the blood supply, the tone of the blood vessels of the hypothalamus.

On a note! Influenced by external and internal factors both a decrease in the activity of the endocrine gland (hypofunction) and an increased synthesis of hormones (hyperfunction) are possible.

Hormones: properties and functions

By chemical structure hormones are:

steroid. The lipid base, substances actively penetrate through cell membranes, prolonged exposure, provoke a change in the processes of translation and transcription during the synthesis of protein compounds. Sex hormones, corticosteroids, vitamin D sterols;
derivatives of amino acids. The main groups and types of regulators: thyroid hormones (and), catecholamines (noradrenaline and adrenaline, which are often called "stress hormones"), a tryptophan derivative - a histidine derivative - histamine;
protein-peptide. The composition of hormones is from 5 to 20 amino acid residues in peptides and more than 20 in protein compounds. Glycoproteins (and), polypeptides (vasopressin and glucagon), simple protein compounds (somatotropin, insulin). Protein and peptide hormones are a large group of regulators. It also includes ACTH, STH, LTH, (pituitary hormones), thyrocalcitonin (thyroid), (pineal gland hormone), parathyroid hormone (parathyroid glands).

Derivatives of amino acids and steroid hormones exhibit the same type of action, peptide and protein regulators have a pronounced species specificity. Among the regulators there are peptides of sleep, learning and memory, drinking and eating behavior, analgesics, neurotransmitters, regulators of muscle tone, mood, sexual behavior. This category includes immune, survival and growth stimulants,

Peptides-regulators often affect the organs not independently, but in combination with bioactive substances, hormones and mediators, they show a local effect. Feature- synthesis in various departments organism: gastrointestinal tract, central nervous system, heart, reproductive system.

The target organ has receptors for certain kind hormone. For example, the bones are susceptible to the action of the regulators of the parathyroid glands, small intestine, kidneys.

The main properties of hormones:

specificity;
high biological activity;
distance of influence;
secretion.

The lack of one of the hormones cannot be compensated with the help of another regulator. In the absence of a specific substance, excessive secretion or low concentration, a pathological process develops.

Diagnosis of diseases

To assess the functionality of the glands that produce regulators, several types of studies of various levels of complexity are used. First, the doctor examines the patient and the problem area, for example, the thyroid gland, identifies external signs deviations and .

Be sure to collect a personal / family history: many endocrine diseases have a hereditary predisposition. The following is a set of diagnostic measures. Only a series of analyzes in combination with instrumental diagnostics allows you to understand what type of pathology is developing.

The main methods for studying the endocrine system:

identification of symptoms characteristic of pathologies against the background of hormonal disruptions and abnormal metabolism;
radioimmunoassay;
holding a problem organ;
orchiometry;
densitometry;
immunoradiometric analysis;
test for ;
conducting and CT;
the introduction of concentrated extracts of certain glands;
Genetic Engineering;
radioisotope scanning, application of radioisotopes;
determination of the level of hormones, metabolic products of regulators in various types of fluid (blood, urine, cerebrospinal fluid);
study of receptor activity in target organs and tissues;
clarification of the size of the problematic gland, assessment of the growth dynamics of the affected organ;
accounting for circadian rhythms in the production of certain hormones in combination with the age and gender of the patient;
conducting tests with artificial suppression of the activity of the endocrine organ;
comparison of blood parameters entering and exiting the gland under study

On the page, read the instructions for using Mastodinon drops and tablets for the treatment of mastopathy of the mammary glands.

Endocrine pathologies, causes and symptoms

Diseases of the pituitary gland, thyroid gland, hypothalamus, pineal gland, pancreas, and other elements:

endocrine hypertension;
pituitary dwarfism;
, endemic and ;

ORGANS OF THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

organs of the endocrine system, or endocrine glands, produce biologically active substances - hormones, which are released by them into the blood and, spreading with it throughout the body, affect the cells various bodies and fabrics (target cells), regulating their growth and activity due to the presence on these cells of specific hormone receptors.

Endocrine glands (such as the pituitary gland, pineal gland, adrenal glands, thyroid and parathyroid glands) are independent organs, however, in addition to them, hormones are also produced by individual endocrine cells and their groups, which are scattered among non-endocrine tissues - such cells and their groups form dispersed (diffuse) endocrine system. A significant number of cells of the dispersed endocrine system are found in the mucous membranes of various organs, they are especially numerous in digestive tract, where their combination was called the gastro-entero-pancreatic (GEP) system.

The endocrine glands, which have an organ structure, are usually covered with a capsule of dense connective tissue, from which thinning trabeculae extend deep into the organ, consisting of loose fibrous connective tissue and carrying vessels and nerves. In most endocrine glands, the cells form cords and adhere closely to the capillaries, which ensures the secretion of hormones into the bloodstream. Unlike other endocrine glands, the cells in the thyroid gland do not form strands, but are organized into small vesicles called follicles. Capillaries in the endocrine glands form very dense networks and, due to their structure, have increased permeability - they are fenestrated or sinusoidal. Since hormones are secreted into the bloodstream, and not onto the surface of the body or into the cavity of organs (as in exocrine glands), there are no excretory ducts in the endocrine glands.

Functionally leading (hormone-producing) tissue endocrine glands are traditionally considered epithelial (related to various histogenetic types). Indeed, the epithelium is the functionally leading tissue of most of the endocrine glands (thyroid and parathyroid glands, anterior and intermediate lobes of the pituitary gland, adrenal cortex). Some endocrine elements of the gonads also have an epithelial nature - ovarian follicular cells, testicular sustentocytes, etc.). However

at present, there is no doubt that all other types of tissues are also capable of producing hormones. In particular, hormones are produced by muscle tissue cells (smooth as part of the juxtaglomerular apparatus of the kidney - see Chapter 15 and striated, including secretory cardiomyocytes in the atria - see Chapter 9).

Some endocrine elements of the gonads have a connective tissue origin (for example, interstitial endocrinocytes - Leydig cells, cells of the inner layer of the theca of ovarian follicles, chyle cells of the ovarian medulla - see chapters 16 and 17). The neural origin is characteristic of neuroendocrine cells of the hypothalamus, cells pineal gland, neurohypophysis, adrenal medulla, some elements of the dispersed endocrine system (for example, C-cells of the thyroid gland - see below). Some endocrine glands (pituitary gland, adrenal gland) are formed by tissues of different embryonic origin and located separately in lower vertebrates.

The cells of the endocrine glands are characterized by high secretory activity and significant development of the synthetic apparatus; their structure depends primarily on chemical nature produced hormones. In the cells that form peptide hormones, the granular endoplasmic reticulum, the Golgi complex, are strongly developed, in those synthesizing steroid hormones, the agranular endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria with tubular-vesicular cristae. The accumulation of hormones usually occurs intracellularly in the form of secretory granules; hypothalamic neurohormones can accumulate in large quantities inside axons, sharply stretching them in separate areas (neurosecretory bodies). The only example of extracellular accumulation of hormones is in the follicles of the thyroid gland.

The organs of the endocrine system belong to several levels of organization. The lower one is occupied by glands that produce hormones that affect various tissues of the body. (effector, or peripheral, glands). The activity of most of these glands is regulated by special tropic hormones of the anterior lobe. pituitary gland(second, higher level). In turn, the release of tropic hormones is controlled by special neurohormones. hypothalamus, which occupies the highest position in the hierarchical organization of the system.

Hypothalamus

Hypothalamus- plot diencephalon containing special neurosecretory nuclei, whose cells (neuroendocrine cells) produced and secreted into the blood neurohormones. These cells receive efferent impulses from other parts nervous system, and their axons terminate on blood vessels (neurovascular synapses). Neurosecretory nuclei of the hypothalamus, depending on the size of the cells and their functional features divided into large- and small cell.

Large cell nuclei of the hypothalamus formed by the bodies of neuroendocrine cells, the axons of which leave the hypothalamus, forming the hypothalamic-pituitary tract, cross the blood-brain barrier, penetrate into the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland, where they form capillary terminals (Fig. 165). These cores are supraoptic and paraventricular, which secrete antidiuretic hormone, or vasopressin(increases blood pressure, provides reverse absorption of water in the kidneys) and oxytocin(causes contractions of the uterus during childbirth, as well as myoepithelial cells of the mammary gland during lactation).

Small cell nuclei of the hypothalamus produce a number of hypophysiotropic factors that enhance (releasing factors, or liberins) or oppress (inhibiting factors, or statins) the production of hormones by the cells of the anterior lobe, getting to them through portal vascular system. The axons of the neuroendocrine cells of these nuclei form terminals on primary capillary network in middle elevation, being neurohemal contact zone. This network is further collected in the portal veins, penetrating the anterior pituitary gland and breaking up into secondary capillary network between strands of endocrinocytes (see Fig. 165).

hypothalamic neuroendocrine cells- process form, with a large vesicular nucleus, a clearly visible nucleolus and basophilic cytoplasm containing a developed granular endoplasmic reticulum and a large Golgi complex, from which neurosecretory granules are separated (Fig. 166 and 167). Granules are transported along the axon (neurosecretory fiber) along the central bundle of microtubules and microfilaments, and in some places they accumulate in large quantities, stretching the axon varicosely - preterminal and axon terminal extensions. The largest of these areas are clearly visible under a light microscope and are called neurosecretory bodies(Gerring). Terminals (neurohemal synapses) are characterized by the presence, in addition to granules, of numerous light vesicles (they return the membrane after exocytosis).

Pituitary

Pituitary regulates the activity of a number of endocrine glands and serves as a site for the release of hypothalamic hormones of the large cell nuclei of the hypothalamus. Interacting with the hypothalamus, the pituitary gland forms with it a single hypothalamic-pituitary neurosecretory system. The pituitary gland consists of two embryologically, structurally and functionally various parts - neural (posterior) lobe - part of the outgrowth of the diencephalon (neurohypophysis) and adenohypophysis, the leading tissue of which is the epithelium. The adenohypophysis divides into a larger anterior lobe (distal part), narrow intermediate part (share) and underdeveloped tubular part.

The pituitary gland is covered with a capsule of dense fibrous connective tissue. Its stroma is represented by very thin layers of loose connective tissue associated with a network of reticular fibers, which in the adenohypophysis surrounds strands of epithelial cells and small vessels.

Anterior lobe (distal) pituitary gland and in humans it makes up most of its mass; it is formed by anastomosing trabeculae, or strands, endocrine cells, closely related to the sinusoidal capillary system. Based on the characteristics of the color of their cytoplasm, they distinguish: 1) chromophilic(intensely colored) and 2) chromophobic(weakly perceiving dyes) cells (endocrinocytes).

Chromophilic cells depending on the color of the secretory granules containing hormones, they are divided into acidophilic and basophilic endocrinocytes(Fig. 168).

acidophilic endocrinocytes develop growth hormone, or growth hormone, which stimulates growth and prolactin or lactotropic hormone, which stimulates the development of mammary glands and lactation.

Basophilic endocrinocytes include gonadotropic, thyrotropic and corticotropic cells, which produce respectively: follicle-stimulating hormone(FSH) and luteinizing hormone(LH) - regulate gametogenesis and the production of sex hormones in both sexes, thyrotropic hormone- enhances the activity of thyrocytes, adrenocorticotropic hormone- stimulates the activity of the adrenal cortex.

Chromophobic cells - a heterogeneous group of cells, which includes chromophilic cells after excretion of secretory granules, poorly differentiated cambial elements that can turn into basophils or acidophils.

Intermediate pituitary gland in humans, it is very poorly developed and consists of narrow discontinuous strands of basophilic and chromophobic cells that surround a series of cystic cavities (follicles), containing colloid(non-hormonal substance). Most of the cells secrete melanocyte-stimulating hormone(regulates the activity of melanocytes), some have the characteristics of corticotropes.

Posterior (neural) lobe contains: shoots (neurosecretory fibers) and terminals of neurosecretory cells of large-cell nuclei of the hypothalamus, through which vasopressin and oxytocin are transported and released into the blood; expanded areas along the processes and in the terminal area - neurosecretory bodies(Gerring); numerous fenestrated capillaries; pituicytes- process glial cells that perform supportive, trophic and regulatory functions (Fig. 169).

Thyroid

Thyroid- the largest of the endocrine glands of the body - is formed by two shares, connected by an isthmus. Each share is covered capsule from dense fibrous connective tissue, from which layers (partitions) extend into the organ, carrying vessels and nerves (Fig. 170).

Follicles - morphofunctional units of the gland - closed formations of a rounded shape, the wall of which consists of a single layer of epithelial follicular cells (thyrocytes), the lumen contains their secretory product - a colloid (see Fig. 170 and 171). Follicular cells produce iodine-containing thyroid hormones (thyroxine, triiodothyronine), which regulate the activity of metabolic reactions and developmental processes. These hormones bind to the protein matrix and thyroglobulin stored within the follicles. Follicular cells are characterized by large light nuclei with a clearly visible nucleolus, numerous dilated cisterns of the granular endoplasmic reticulum and a large Golgi complex, and multiple microvilli are located on the apical surface (see Fig. 4 and 172). The shape of the follicular cells can vary from flat to columnar depending on functional state. Each follicle is surrounded perifollicular capillary network. Between the follicles are narrow layers of loose fibrous connective tissue (stroma of the gland) and compact islands interfollicular epithelium(see Fig. 170 and 171), which probably serves as a source

no formation of new follicles, however, it has been established that follicles can be formed by dividing existing ones.

C cells (parafollicular cells) have a neural origin and produce a protein hormone calcitonin, having a hypocalcemic effect. They are detected only by special staining methods and most often lie singly or small groups parafollicular - in the wall of the follicle between the thyrocytes and the basement membrane (see Fig. 172). Calcitonin accumulates in C-cells in dense granules and is excreted from the cells by the mechanism of exocytosis with an increase in the level of calcium in the blood.

Parathyroid glands

Parathyroid glands produce a polypeptide parathyroid hormone (parathormone), which is involved in the regulation of calcium metabolism, increasing the level of calcium in the blood. Each gland is covered with a thin capsule from dense connective tissue, from which partitions depart, dividing it into slices. The lobules are made up of strands of glandular cells. parathyrocytes, between which are thin layers of connective tissue with a network of fenestrated capillaries containing fat cells, the number of which increases significantly with age (Fig. 173 and 174).

Parathyrocytes divided into two main types - main and oxyphilic(see fig. 174).

Major parathyroid cells form the main part of the parenchyma of the organ. These are small, polygonal cells with weakly oxyphilic cytoplasm. Available in two versions (light and dark main parathyroid cells), reflecting low and high functional activity respectively.

Oxyphilic parathyrocytes larger than the main ones, their cytoplasm is intensely stained with acidic dyes and is distinguished by a very high content of large mitochondria with a weak development of other organelles and the absence of secretory granules. In children, these cells are single, with age their number increases.

adrenal glands

adrenal glands- endocrine glands, which consist of two parts - cortical and medulla, with different origin, structure and function. Each adrenal gland is covered with a thick capsule from dense connective tissue, from which thin trabeculae extend into the cortical substance, carrying vessels and nerves.

Cortex (bark) of the adrenal gland develops from coelomic epithelium. It takes

most of the volume of the organ and is formed by three unsharply demarcated concentric layers (zones):(1) glomerular area,(2) beam zone and (3) mesh zone(Fig. 175). Cells of the adrenal cortex (corticosterocytes) develop corticosteroids- a group of steroid hormones that are synthesized from cholesterol.

Glomerular zone - thin outer, adjacent to the capsule; formed by columnar cells with a uniformly stained cytoplasm, which form rounded arches ("glomeruli"). The cells in this zone secrete mineralcorticoids- hormones that affect the content of electrolytes in the blood and blood pressure (in humans, the most important of them aldosterone).

beam zone - medium, forms the bulk of the crust; consists of large oxyphilic vacuolated cells - spongy corticosterocytes(spongiocytes), which form radially oriented strands ("bundles"), separated by sinusoidal capillaries. They are characterized by a very high content of lipid drops (more than in the cells of the glomerular and fascicular zones), mitochondria with tubular cristae, a powerful development of the agranular endoplasmic reticulum and the Golgi complex (Fig. 176). These cells produce glucocorticoids- hormones that have a pronounced effect on various types of metabolism (especially carbohydrate) and on the immune system (the main one in humans is cortisol).

mesh zone - narrow internal, adjacent to the medulla - represented by anastomosing epithelial strands, going in different directions (forming a "network"), between which there are blood vessels;

pillars. The cells of this zone are smaller than in the beam zone; numerous lysosomes and lipofuscin granules are found in their cytoplasm. They work out sex steroids(the main ones in humans are dehydroepiandrosterone and its sulfate - have a weak androgenic effect).

Adrenal medulla has a neural origin - it is formed during embryogenesis by cells migrating from the neural crest. Its composition includes chromaffin, ganglionic and supporting cells.

Chromaffin cells of the medulla arranged in the form of nests and strands, have polygonal shape, large nucleus, fine-grained or vacuolated cytoplasm. They contain small mitochondria, rows of cisterns of the granular endoplasmic reticulum, a large Golgi complex, and numerous secretory granules. Synthesize catecholamines - adrenaline and norepinephrine - and are divided into two types:

1)adrenalocytes (light chromaffin cells)- numerically predominate, produce adrenaline, which accumulates in granules with a moderately dense matrix;

2)noradrenalocytes (dark chromaffin cells)- produce norepinephrine, which accumulates in granules with a matrix compacted in the center and light on the periphery. Secretory granules in both types of cells contain, in addition to catecholamines, proteins, including chromogranins (osmotic stabilizers), enkephalins, lipids, and ATP.

ganglion cells - are contained in a small number and represent multipolar autonomic neurons.

ORGANS OF THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

Rice. 165. Scheme of the structure of the hypothalamic-pituitary neurosecretory system

1 - large cell neurosecretory nuclei of the hypothalamus, containing the bodies of neuroendocrine cells: 1.1 - supraoptic, 1.2 - paraventricular; 2 - hypothalamic-pituitary neurosecretory tract, formed by axons of neuroendocrine cells with varicose extensions (2.1), which terminate in neurovascular (neurohemal) synapses (2.2) on capillaries (3) in the posterior pituitary gland; 4 - blood-brain barrier; 5 - small cell neurosecretory nuclei of the hypothalamus, containing bodies of neuroendocrine cells, the axons of which (5.1) terminate in neurohemal synapses (5.2) on the capillaries of the primary network (6) formed by the superior pituitary artery (7); 8 - portal veins of the pituitary gland; 9 - secondary network of sinusoidal capillaries in the anterior pituitary gland; 10 - lower pituitary artery; 11 - pituitary veins; 12 - cavernous sinus

Large cell neurosecretory nuclei of the hypothalamus produce oxytocin and vasopressin, small cell nuclei produce liberins and statins.

Rice. 166. Neuroendocrine cells of the supraoptic nucleus of the hypothalamus

1 - neuroendocrine cells in different phases secretory cycle: 1.1 - perinuclear accumulation of neurosecretion; 2 - processes of neuroendocrine cells (neurosecretory fibers) with granules of neurosecretion; 3 - neurosecretory little body (Gerring) - varicose expansion of the axon of a neuroendocrine cell; 4 - nuclei of gliocytes; 5 - blood capillary

Rice. 167. Scheme of ultrastructural organization of hypothalamic neuroendocrine cells:

1 - perikaryon: 1.1 - nucleus, 1.2 - tanks of the granular endoplasmic reticulum, 1.3 - Golgi complex, 1.4 - neurosecretory granules; 2 - beginning of dendrites; 3 - axon with varicose extensions; 4 - neurosecretory little bodies (Gerring); 5 - neurovascular (neurohemal) synapse; 6 - blood capillary

Rice. 168. Pituitary. Plot of the anterior lobe

Stain: hematoxylin-eosin

1 - chromophobic endocrinocyte; 2 - acidophilic endocrinocyte; 3 - basophilic endocrinocyte; 4 - sinusoidal capillary

Rice. 169. Pituitary. Plot of the neural (posterior) lobe

Staining: paraldehyde magenta and azan according to Heidenhain

1 - neurosecretory fibers; 2 - neurosecretory bodies (Gerring); 3 - pituitite core; 4 - fenestrated blood capillary

Rice. 170. Thyroid gland (general view)

Stain: hematoxylin-eosin

1 - fibrous capsule; 2 - connective tissue stroma: 2.1 - blood vessel; 3 - follicles; 4 - interfollicular islets

Rice. 171. Thyroid gland (section)

Stain: hematoxylin-eosin

1 - follicle: 1.1 - follicular cell, 1.2 - basement membrane, 1.3 - colloid, 1.3.1 - resorption vacuoles; 2 - interfollicular islet; 3 - connective tissue (stroma): 3.1 - blood vessel

Rice. 172. Ultrastructural organization of follicular cells and C-cells of the thyroid gland

Drawing with EMF

1 - follicular cell: 1.1 - tanks of the granular endoplasmic reticulum, 1.2 - microvilli;

2- colloid in the lumen of the follicle; 3 - C-cell (parafollicular): 3.1 - secretory granules; 4 - basement membrane; 5 - blood capillary

Rice. 173. Parathyroid gland (general view)

Stain: hematoxylin-eosin

1 - capsule; 2 - strands of parathyrocytes; 3 - connective tissue (stroma): 3.1 - adipocytes; 4 - blood vessels

Rice. 174. Parathyroid gland (section)

Stain: hematoxylin-eosin

1 - main parathyrocytes; 2 - oxyphilic parathyrocyte; 3 - stroma: 3.1 - adipocytes; 4 - blood capillary

Rice. 175. Adrenal gland

Stain: hematoxylin-eosin

1 - capsule; 2 - cortical substance: 2.1 - glomerular zone, 2.2 - beam zone, 2.3 - mesh zone; 3 - medulla; 4 - sinusoidal capillaries

Rice. 176. Ultrastructural organization of cells of the adrenal cortex (corticosterocytes)

Drawings with EMF

Cells of the cortical substance (corticosterocytes): A - glomerular, B - fascicular, C - reticular zone

1 - core; 2 - cytoplasm: 2.1 - cisterns of the agranular endoplasmic reticulum, 2.2 - cisterns of the granular endoplasmic reticulum, 2.3 - Golgi complex, 2.4 - mitochondria with tubular-vesicular cristae, 2.5 - mitochondria with lamellar cristae, 2.6 - lipid drops, 2.7 - lipofuscin granules

The human body consists of several systems, without the correct actions of which it is impossible to imagine a familiar life. one of them, because it is responsible for the timely production of hormones, which directly affect the error-free operation of all organs in the body.

Its cells secrete these substances, which are then released into circulatory system or penetrate into neighboring cells. If you know the organs and functions of the human endocrine system and its structure, then you can maintain its normal operation and correct all problems on initial stages birth so that a person can live a long and healthy life without worrying about anything.

What is she responsible for?

In addition to regulating the proper functioning of organs, the endocrine system is responsible for the optimal well-being of a person during adaptation to various kinds of conditions. And also it is closely connected with the immune system, which makes it the guarantor of the body's resistance to various diseases.

Based on its purpose, we can distinguish the main functions:

provides comprehensive development and growth;
influences a person's behavior and generates his emotional state;
responsible for the correct and accurate metabolism in the body;
corrects some violations in the activity of the human body;
affects the production of energy in a mode suitable for life.

The importance of hormones in the human body cannot be underestimated. The very origin of life is controlled by hormones.

Types of the endocrine system and features of its structure

The endocrine system is divided into two types. The classification depends on the placement of its cells.

glandular - cells are placed and connected together, forming;
diffuse - cells are distributed throughout the body.

If you know the hormones produced in the body, then you can find out which glands are associated with the endocrine system.

These can be both independent organs and tissues that belong to the endocrine system.

hypothalamic-pituitary system - the main glands of the system are the hypothalamus and pituitary gland;
thyroid gland - the hormones it produces store and contain iodine;
- are responsible for the optimal content and production of calcium in the body so that the nervous and motor systems work without failures;
adrenal glands - they are located at the upper poles of the kidneys and consist of an outer cortical layer and an inner medulla. The cortex produces mineralocorticoids and glucocorticoids. Mineralocorticoids regulate ion exchange and maintain electrolytic balance in cells. Glycocorticoids stimulate protein breakdown and carbohydrate synthesis. The medulla produces adrenaline, which is responsible for the tone of the nervous system. The adrenal glands also produce small amounts of male hormones. If a failure occurs in the girl's body and their productivity increases, there is an increase in male characteristics;
the pancreas is one of the largest glands that produces hormones of the endocrine system and is distinguished by a paired action: it secretes pancreatic juice and hormones;
- in endocrine function This gland secretes melatonin and norepinephrine. The first substance affects blood circulation and the activity of the nervous system, and the second regulates sleep phases;
gonads are the sex glands that are part of the human endocrine apparatus, they are responsible for puberty and the activity of each person.

Diseases

Ideally, absolutely all organs of the endocrine system should function without failures, however, if they happen, then a person develops specific diseases. They are based on hypofunction (dysfunction of the endocrine glands) and hyperfunction.

All diseases are accompanied by:

the formation of the resistance of the human body to active substances;
improper production of hormones;
production of an abnormal hormone;
failure of their absorption and transportation.

Any failure in the organization of the organs of the endocrine system has its own pathologies that require the necessary treatment.

- Excess secretion of growth hormone provokes excessive, however, proportional human growth. In adulthood, only certain parts of the body grow rapidly;
hypothyroidism - low level hormones accompanied chronic fatigue and slowing down metabolic processes;
- excess parahormone provokes poor absorption of certain trace elements;
diabetes - when there is a lack of insulin, this disease is formed, which causes poor absorption necessary for the body substances. Against this background, glucose is poorly broken down, which leads to hyperglycemia;
hypoparathyroidism - characterized by seizures and convulsions;
goiter - due to lack of iodine is accompanied by dysplasia;
autoimmune thyroiditis - the immune system does not function in the mode that it should, so there is a pathological change in the tissues;
Thyrotoxicosis is an excess of hormones.

If a endocrine organs and tissues are characterized by malfunctions, then hormone therapy is used. Such treatment effectively relieves the symptoms associated with hormones, and performs their functions for some time until stabilization of hormone secretion occurs:

fatigue;
constant thirst;
muscle weakness;
frequent urge to empty the bladder;
a sharp change in body mass index;
constant sleepiness;
tachycardia, pain in the heart;
increased excitability;
decrease in memorization processes;
excessive sweating;
diarrhea;
temperature increase.

Prevention

In order to prevent, anti-inflammatory and strengthening drugs are prescribed. used radioactive iodine. They solve many problems, although surgical intervention considered the most effective, doctors resort to this method extremely rarely.

Balanced diet, good physical activity, absence of any unhealthy habits and avoidance stressful situations helps keep the endocrine system in good shape. Good ones natural conditions for life also play a huge role in avoiding diseases.

If there are any problems, you should definitely contact a specialist. Self-medication in this case is not allowed, because it can provoke complication and further development diseases. This process adversely affects the entire endocrine system.