Intrauterine development of the fetus by weeks. Formation of character in a child

Early childhood is a period of 1 to 3 years. At this age, changes occur in personal development, the cognitive sphere, and the social situation of development.

Neoplasms infancy lead to the fact that the relationship between the child and the adult is changing, which in turn leads to the formation of a new social situation of development, which consists in the emergence of joint activities of a child and an adult, and also that this activity becomes subject. The essence of joint activity is the assimilation of socially developed ways of using objects, that is, an adult teaches the child to use the surrounding objects correctly, and also explains why they are needed and where they should be used. social situation The development of a child at this age looks like this: "Child - SUBJECT - adult." As can be seen from this triad, the subject is important for the child. You can be convinced of this by watching how the child plays: he constantly looks at the object he is passionate about, be it a typewriter, chair, doll, spoon, etc. You may get the feeling that he doesn’t need anything else and no one needed, his attention is focused only on the object of passion. But this is not so, because without an adult, a child cannot master human ways of using objects.

Joint activity becomes objective, because the motive of this activity lies in the object itself and the way it is used. Communication at this age takes the form of organizing objective activity. In other words, it occurs at the moment of explaining the correctness of the use of one or another object. Communication develops intensively and becomes verbal, because mastering objects using only emotional coloring cannot be effective.

At this age, perception, thinking, memory, speech develop. This process is characterized by the verbalization of cognitive processes and the emergence of their arbitrariness.

Development of perception defined by three parameters: perceptual actions(the integrity of the perceived object), sensory standards(the emergence of sensation standards: sound, light, taste, tactile, olfactory) and correlation actions. In other words, the process of perception consists in highlighting the most characteristic qualities, features, properties for a given object or situation; drawing up on their basis a certain image; correlation of these standard images with objects of the surrounding world. So the child learns to divide objects into classes: dolls, cars, balls, spoons, etc.

From the year the process of cognition of the surrounding world begins to actively develop. A child from one to two years old uses different options to perform the same action, and from one and a half to two years old he has the ability to solve a problem by guessing (insight), i.e. the child suddenly finds a solution to this problem, avoiding trial and error method.

From the second year of life, the perception of the child changes. Having learned to influence one object on another, he is able to foresee the outcome of the situation, for example, the possibility of dragging a ball through a hole, moving one object with the help of another, etc. The child can distinguish between such shapes as a circle, oval, square, rectangle, triangle, polygon; colors - red, orange, yellow, green, blue, purple.

Thanks to the development of perception, by the end of an early age, the child begins to develop mental activity. This is expressed in the emergence of the ability to generalize, to transfer the experience gained from the initial conditions to new ones, to establish a connection between objects through experimentation, memorizing them and using them in solving problems. A one and a half year old child can predict and indicate the direction of movement of an object, the location of a familiar object, overcome obstacles on the way to achieving the desired goal. And after a year and a half there is a reaction of choosing an object according to the most striking and simple features: shape and color.

Continues in early childhood thinking development, which from the visual-active gradually passes into the visual-figurative, i.e., actions with material objects are replaced by actions with images. The internal development of thinking proceeds in this way: intellectual operations develop and concepts are formed.

Visual-effective thinking arises by the end of the first year of life and remains leading up to 3.5-4 years. At first, the child can abstract and highlight the shape and color, therefore, when grouping objects, he first of all pays attention to the size and color of the object. At the age of about two years, he identifies objects based on essential and non-essential features. At 2.5 years old, the child distinguishes objects according to essential features: color, shape, size.

A feature of thinking in early childhood is syncretism. Syncretism means indivisibility: the child, solving a problem, does not single out individual parameters in it, perceiving the situation as a complete picture. The role of an adult in this case is to isolate from the situation and analyze individual details, from which the child will then highlight the main and secondary ones.

Visual-figurative thinking occurs at the age of 2.5–3 years and remains leading until 6–6.5 years of age. The formation of this thinking is associated with the formation of elementary self-consciousness and the beginning of the development of the ability for arbitrary self-regulation, accompanied by a developed imagination.

Memory development. By the age of two, a child develops working memory. Light logical and thematic games are available to him, he can draw up an action plan for a short period of time, does not forget the goal set a few minutes ago.

The development of speech. Up to a year, a child can already call a spade a spade. He has rich experience in learning about the world around him, he has an idea about his parents, food, environment, toys. And yet, out of the multitude of qualities contained in a word as a concept, the child at first assimilates only individual properties characteristic of the object with which this word was initially associated in his perception.

A one-year-old child reacts to words as to the situation as a whole. The word turns out to be associated with the situation, and not with the object representing it. The child carefully observes the facial expressions and gestures of the speaking adult, catching on them the meaning of what is being said.

From 11 months, the transition from pre-phonemic to phonemic speech begins and the formation phonemic hearing, which ends by the age of two, when the child can distinguish words that differ from each other by one phoneme. The transition from prephonemic to phonemic speech lasts 3 years and ends in the fourth year of life. At the age of 3, the child learns to use cases correctly, first begins to use one-word sentences, then, at the age of 1.5 to 2.5 years, he can combine words, combining them into two-three-word phrases or two-word sentences, where there is also a subject and predicate. Then, thanks to the development of the grammatical structure of speech, he masters all cases and is able to build complex sentences. At the same time, there is a conscious control over the correct pronunciation of speech statements.

After 1.5 years, there is activity of independent speech and speech communication. The child begins to ask for the names of objects or phenomena that interest him. At first, he uses the language of gestures, facial expressions and pantomimes or a pointing gesture, and then a question expressed in verbal form is added to the gesture. The child learns to control the behavior of other people with the help of speech. But a child between the ages of 2.5 and 3 years cannot follow the instructions of adults, especially when it is necessary to choose one action from several; he can do given choice only closer to 4 years.

During the second year of life, the child begins to learn the verbal designation of surrounding objects, and then the names of adults, the names of toys, and only then - parts of the body, i.e. nouns, and by the age of two, with normal development, understands the meaning of almost all words related to the surrounding reality . This is facilitated by the development semantic function children's speech, that is, the definition of the meaning of the word, its differentiation, clarification and assignment of generalized meanings to words that are associated with them in the language.

By the age of 2, children have a clear understanding of the purpose of the household and personal hygiene items around them. They understand general issues requiring a yes or no answer.

At about 3 years old, the child begins to listen carefully to what adults are talking about, loves when stories, fairy tales, and poems are read to him.

Up to 1.5 years, the child learns from 30 to 100 words, but rarely uses them. By the age of 2, he knows 300 words, and by 3 - 1200-1500 words.

The following stages were identified in the development of speech:

1) syllables (instead of words);

2) sentence words;

3) two-word sentences (for example, "mom here");

4) sentences of three or more words;

5) correct speech(grammatically consistent sentences).

The main trends in the development of the speech of a young child are as follows.

Passive speech in development is ahead of active speech.

The child discovers that each object has its own name.

At the border of the 2nd and 3rd years of life, the child, as it were, intuitively “discovers” that the words in the sentence are interconnected.

There is a transition from the ambiguity of children's words to the first functional generalizations built on the basis of practical actions.

Phonemic hearing is ahead of the development of articulation. The child first learns to listen to speech correctly, and then to speak correctly.

Mastering the syntactic structure of the language is carried out.

The functions of speech develop, there is a transition from the indicative (indicative) to the nominative (denoting) function of speech.

In early childhood, along with the development of the cognitive sphere, there is also personal development. First of all, it happens personal socialization child, because, watching adults, he tries to imitate them: to do as they do, to behave as they behave in certain situations. The process of imitation goes through communication and interaction between an adult and a child. Thus, observing the behavior of people and imitating them becomes one of the main sources of personal socialization of the child. In the development of personality, an important role is played by the feeling of attachment, which is formed in the child by the end of the first year of life and continues to develop in early childhood. The reason for attachment may lie in the fact that adults satisfy the basic needs of the child, reduce their anxiety, provide a safe environment for existence and active study of the surrounding reality, form the basis for normal relationships with people at a more mature age.

When the mother is near the child, he is more active and prone to exploring the environment. Positive rating actions and personal qualities of the child by the parent forms in him a sense of self-confidence, faith in his abilities and capabilities. If a child is attached to his parents and they pay him the same, then he is more obedient and disciplined. If parents are friendly, attentive and strive to meet the needs of the child, then he develops a personal, personal attachment.

If a child is deprived of constant positive emotional contact with his mother or loved ones, then he will have problems in the future in establishing normal, trusting relationships with others.

In early childhood there is the formation of self-consciousness. The development of self-awareness will lead to the formation self-esteem(see 3.6 for details). There is a development independence. The phrase "I myself" is the best way to describe its manifestation. The child does not always want to be helped. Having mastered walking, he finds himself obstacles, obstacles and tries to overcome them. All this gives the child pleasure and indicates that he begins to develop such qualities as willpower, perseverance, determination.

At this age, many children show disobedience. When they are told that it is impossible to do this, they continue to do it their own way. Often this is due to the desire of children to know the world around them as quickly as possible.

From the age of 1.5, the child begins to realize his abilities and his own personality traits. A two-year-old child understands that he can influence people and achieve the desired goal.

Children begin to develop empathy- understanding emotional state another man. One can observe how a one and a half year old child strives to console an upset person: he hugs him, kisses him, gives him a toy, etc.

The child has a need in achieving success. This need is being built up in stages. First, the child begins to realize his successes and failures, then he can explain the successes and failures of other people, then he acquires the ability to distinguish tasks according to the degree of difficulty and evaluate the degree of development of his own skills necessary to complete this task, and, finally, he can evaluate his abilities and the applied efforts.

Table 5

In table. 5 given achievements mental development child with whom he approaches the crisis of three years.

The crisis of three years is characterized by the fact that personality changes that occur with the child, lead to a change in his relationship with adults. This crisis arises because the child begins to separate himself from other people, realizes his possibilities, feels himself a source of will. He begins to compare himself with adults, and he involuntarily has a desire to perform the same actions that they do, for example: “When I grow up, I will brush my own teeth.”

At this age, the following traits appear: negativism, stubbornness, depreciation, obstinacy, self-will, protest-rebellion, despotism. These characteristics were described by L.S. Vygotsky. He believed that the emergence of such reactions contributes to the emergence of the need for respect and recognition.

Negativism manifests itself in a negative reaction to the demand or request of an adult, and not to the action itself. For example, a child ignores the demands of one family member or teacher, while others obey. It was also noted that negativism is mainly manifested in relationships with relatives, and not with strangers. Perhaps, subconsciously, the child feels that such behavior towards relatives will not bring him serious harm. Therefore, we must remember that negativism and disobedience are two different things.

Another characteristic of the crisis of three years is stubbornness. Its reason is not in the child's desire to get what he wants or needs at all costs, but in the fact that his opinion is taken into account. It doesn’t matter to the child whether he gets this thing or not, he needs to establish himself in his “adulthood”, in the fact that his opinion also means something. Therefore, a stubborn child will insist on his own even if he does not really need this thing.

The next feature is depreciation- inherent in all crises. It manifests itself in the fact that all the habits and values ​​\u200b\u200bthat used to be dear begin to depreciate. For example, a child may throw and even break a favorite toy in the past, refuses to follow previously accepted rules of behavior, now considering them unreasonable, etc.

obstinacy directed against the accepted norms of behavior in the family and is similar to negativism and stubbornness. For example, if it is customary in the family to have dinner together, then the child begins to refuse to eat at this particular time, and then he develops an appetite.

willfulness expressed in the desire of the child to do everything himself. If in infancy he strove for physical independence, now his behavior is aimed at independence of intentions and plans. Such behavior is manifested not only in the actions offered by adults, for example: “Do it yourself”, “You are already big and you can do it”, etc., but also in a stubborn desire to do this and not otherwise. This feeling captures the child to such an extent that he openly opposes his desires to the expectations of others. The manifestation of independence is reflected in relationships with adults. When a child realizes that he can do something myself, He doesn't need adult help. They should understand this and try to avoid negative statements about this, not to criticize the child, but to allow him to show independence.

protest riot expressed in frequent quarrels between children and parents. According to L.S. Vygotsky, “the child is at war with others, in constant conflict with them” (Vygotsky L.S., 1991).

Manifestations despotism are as follows: the child begins to dictate to everyone around him how to behave, and strives to be obeyed and act as he says. Such behavior can be observed when the child is alone in the family or the last in a row.

In early childhood, the leader becomes object activity, which affects both mental development and communication with adults.

In infancy, activity is manipulative in nature: the child can repeat the actions shown by adults, transfer the learned action to another object, and master some of his own actions. But in manipulating, the child uses only the external properties and relations of objects. In early childhood, objects become for the child not just an object, but a thing that has a specific purpose and a specific way of using it. The child tries to master more and more new actions of the subject, and the role of an adult is to mentor, cooperate, and help in difficult situations.

By manipulating an object at the end of infancy and early childhood, the child will never be able to understand its function. For example, he can open and close the closet door an infinite number of times, but he will never understand it. functional purpose. Only an adult can explain why this or that thing is needed.

Assimilation of the purpose of the object does not guarantee that the child will use it only for its intended purpose, but the important thing is that he will know how, when and where this should be done. For example, having learned that pencils are needed for writing and drawing, the child can nevertheless roll them around the table or build something with them.

At first, the action and the object in the understanding of the child are closely related. An example of this is the following fact: he cannot comb his hair with a stick or drink from a cube. But over time, there is a separation of the object from the action.

There are three phases in the development of the connection between an action and an object:

1) any actions can be performed with the object;

2) the item is used only for its intended purpose;

3) the free use of an object is possible, but only if its true purpose is known.

D.B. Elkonin singled out two directions for the development of objective activity:

1. Development of action from joint with an adult to independent performance.

The path of action development from joint to independent was studied by I.A. Sokolyansky and A.I. Meshcheryakov. They showed that at first the orientation, execution and evaluation of the action are in the hands of the adult. This is manifested, for example, in the fact that an adult takes the child's hands and performs actions with them. Then a partial or joint action is performed, i.e. the adult starts it, and the child continues. Then the action is performed on the basis of the display and, finally, on the basis of the verbal indication.

2. Development of means and methods of orientation of the child in the conditions of the implementation of the action. It goes through several stages. The first stage consists of:

a) in the non-specific use of tools (manipulation of objects);

b) using an object when the methods of its use have not yet been formed, for example, the child understands what a spoon is for, but takes it very low when eating;

c) mastering a specific way of using.

The second stage occurs when the child begins to perform actions in an inadequate situation. In other words, there is a transfer of action from one object to another, for example, a child, having learned to drink from a mug, drinks from a glass. There is also a transfer of action according to the situation, for example, having learned to put on shoes, the child tries to pull them on the ball.

The third stage is accompanied by the emergence of a game action. Here the adult does not tell the child what to do, how to play or use the object.

Gradually, the child begins to correlate the properties of objects with operations, i.e., learns to determine what can be done best with an object, which operations are most suitable for a particular object.

The stages of formation of such fastenings were identified by P.Ya. Galperin. He believed that at the first stage the child varies his actions based not on the properties of the tool with which he wants to get the object he needs, but on the properties of the object itself. He called this stage “targeted trials”. In the second stage - "watching" - the child finds effective method actions with an object and tries to repeat it. At the third stage - the "stage of obsessive intervention" - he tries to reproduce an effective method of influence and master it, at the fourth stage he discovers ways to regulate and change the action, taking into account the conditions in which it will have to be performed.

Correlative and instrumental actions are significant for mental development.

Correlating actions consist in bringing several objects into certain spatial interactions - for example, folding pyramids from rings, using collapsible toys, etc.

Gun actions- these are actions in which one object is used when acting on other objects. The child masters instrumental actions in the process of learning under the guidance of an adult.

It was found that gun actions can be an indicator of the intellectual development of children, and subject actions indicate the degree of their learning, the breadth of contacts with adults.

By the end of early childhood, play and productive activities are born in object-tool activity.

What are life skills?

These are the basic skills necessary to live among people. Several of these skills are easy to see in the behavior of children from four and a half to five years old. A small person learns to interact with others, seek help, express their needs, get to know each other, enter into a discussion, take the initiative - these are life skills. Scientists list 45 such basic skills and competencies. In Life Skills for Preschoolers, I list the entire list of skills, noting what mistakes at what age it is still acceptable to make.

Life skills are adult (age-appropriate) behavior in a specific repetitive situation. Behavior in a sense is standard, mature. Take a closer look at the child: does he know how to listen to other people, does he ask questions, how does he enter into a conversation, can he offer his help to an adult or a peer? The child learns these skills by observing the behavior of adults, copying it. But if for some reason he has not yet mastered certain skills (perhaps because adults themselves do not possess them), then parents need to connect. For example, you have noticed that the child takes other people's things without asking. Think together about what you can do, help him "try on" the best way out of this situation. “Do you want to take your favorite toy? In order not to be caught stealing, be sure to find her owner and ask permission to play.

If a child, in principle, has such an idea - to turn to others and ask who is the owner of the thing that he wants to take - then we can say that the skill has been formed. Moreover, it is important to find the one who really owns the thing, and not to ask the first one who runs past - “Can I take it?” After all, he will easily answer: “Yes, take it, she is not mine!” A child who takes a thing without asking is easily called a "thief", and he simply has not mastered this skill. The task of parents is to carefully look at which step the child makes a mistake and explain to him the procedure.

Another important skill is the ability to listen. By observing the parents, the child gradually adopts their way of perceiving the world. Later, from 4.5-5 years, this ability will become one of the basic skills necessary for life.

How do you know if a child can listen? Pay attention to the following important criteria. When a child listens, he...

• looks at the person who says
• trying to understand what they are saying
• shows it with “body language” (nods or expresses disagreement),
• asking counter questions
• is silent while the interlocutor speaks.

When the skill is not formed, the child ...

• does not turn to the one who addresses him,
• running away from the speaker
• interrupts or switches (as if on purpose) to another activity while being spoken to.

Life skills are like the tip of the iceberg. Socially acceptable behavior is laid not at 4-5 years old, but earlier, from birth. For example, the first listening experience gives to an infant mother, who reacts to his crying, enters into a dialogue with him: “Yes, I know you are hungry, now I will warm up the porridge, and we will eat with you.” The child remembers: the adult hears him. This becomes his experience. Feelings that dictate this or that behavior develop gradually and spontaneously in communication with parents and peers. It is difficult to form the habit of asking permission from a child who does not believe that if he asks, he will be given. Probably, life has already taught him: when you ask, you are most often refused. But this experience can be corrected. Yes, parents are not chosen. But, as Jean-Paul Sartre said, freedom is what I did with what was done to me. At any age, I can review this and change my attitude.

What to do in a situation where a child has chosen an activity (playing the piano or dancing), and six months later he doesn’t like it? Do you need to listen to his desire, or is it still necessary to teach the child to bring things to the end?

By agreeing to do something, children do not understand what it means to "play the piano" or "learn to dance." They very quickly pick up the enthusiasm of both adults and peers. This responsiveness is wonderful in itself, but it can be a source of problems - after all, any activity requires mastering the skill of getting things done. Parents should carefully monitor what the child really likes, what motivates him, and what demotivates him. Find out what discouraged him from studying - maybe the whole point is that the teacher has changed, or maybe it has become too difficult for him. The recipe here may be as follows: to set some final achievable goal, to mark the border. It is always easier to withstand the load when you know where the finish line is, when everything is over and you can relax and unwind. There can be no good life in a state of constant stress.

Do you want to paint a picture of a happy future for your children? Then already today begin to clearly outline its contours.

You, of course, dream of your children becoming sane adults who are able to take responsibility for their actions, value system, and their lives. However, only instructions from your side are not enough for this. From the moment of the first whims of childhood and ending with the most difficult period of adolescence, you must help children: teach them to take responsibility for their behavior, feelings and opinions. This can be done by drawing the right boundaries.

Boundaries are the foundation of human relationships. There are no boundaries - there will be no maturity, security and growth for your children and yourself.

The task of parents is to own example help the child develop responsibility, self-control and inner freedom. Creating boundaries and maintaining their integrity is not an easy task, but if you follow the rules, the result will not be long in coming.

Exist three ways, following which, you can influence the process of forming boundaries in a child.

The essence and principles of boundaries are clear and definite. These are not some vague concepts known only to the initiates. On the contrary, they are based on reality, the laws of God and everyday life. Therefore, you can teach them to a child, and he is able to master them. It is in your power to help the child express his feelings in words, to teach him to act in a new situation. As the child grows and develops, you are able to explain to him the tasks facing him, to vary the ways of learning.

Do not be afraid to use the word "border" when communicating with children - it is very useful. If the child defiantly does not stop acting up, thereby expressing his displeasure with you, then wait until he calms down. Then say: “Masha, in our house there is a border that cannot be crossed. This border is a ban on whims. If you are unhappy with something, then come and tell me about it. And loud whims cause people anxiety. If you cross this border and start acting up again, then you will have to face the consequences - after class you will not go for a walk.
Go even further: teach your child the principles of boundary formation, not just their practical application. The child is able to learn the following statement:
"You are responsible for your own behavior." This means that he takes responsibility for such things as cleaning his room, getting good grades, decent behavior at the table, restraint when irritated. And he will never blame anyone else for it. The formation of such boundaries will very soon become part of your family's daily life. Children themselves will begin to draw boundaries in other areas of life. One four-year-old boy once said to his brother: “Don't touch this toy; here is my boundary. Carefully instill this thought in your children as soon as they reach the appropriate age (see Deuteronomy 6:6-7).

In children different ages you need to create different boundaries. The following tips will help you feel the difference.

From birth to a year. During the first year of life, the baby is very strongly attached to the mother and father. There is absolute trust between them. At this age, the boundaries should be the most minimal. The baby is not yet able to in full demonstrate his love and discipline, he does not know what disappointment is. At this stage of upbringing, the mother is obliged to protect and feed the child, as well as to satisfy his needs for love and affection.

From one to three years. At this age, children are already able to learn to understand the word "no" and understand the consequences of their disobedience. This period is characterized by uncontrolled behavior, bouts of irritation, hooligan antics, etc. At first, the child may not understand your logic, but he will quickly learn: if he begins to obey his parents, then he will feel good, and if he does not, it will be bad.

Three to five years old. Now children already understand why it is necessary to be responsible and what are the consequences. It is quite possible to talk about it with them. They learn that to be kind to friends, to respect elders, not to allow disrespectful attitude towards themselves, to do the necessary household chores - these are the boundaries corresponding to their age. During this period, the following consequences of incorrect behavior are established: to prohibit going for a walk or watching TV, not buying new game shku, deprive the Sunday trip to the amusement park.

Five to eleven years old. At this time, considerable diligence will already be required and big job outside the family: at school, church, among friends. The concept of boundaries now includes the rational use of free time at home and with friends, doing homework and school assignments, the ability to set yourself specific purpose, the ability to count your time and money. The consequences can be: a ban on spending time with friends, a restriction of personal freedom and a reduction in privileges.

If you have a teen, help them with things like building new relationships, developing values, organizing their time, and identifying life purpose. Set as many natural consequences as possible (for example, don't give money or support the restrictions set by the school).

The most important thing at this stage is that a teenager who behaves like a three-year-old child should not enjoy the freedoms afforded to a mature young person. Freedom comes only with responsibility; it is not a gift that everyone receives when they reach a certain age.

Your example is what is in front of the child's eyes all the time, and not only when you spend a special " educational work». Personal example works as long as you are within sight and sound of your child. Many mothers are dismayed when they find that the child is doing the same as she does, and not the way she tells him to do: “I taught him what is good and what is bad!”. Perhaps she taught.

But the child has been counting the game for a long time, in which mother's (or father's) words either coincide with her (his) actions, or they do not. The best example is the universal rules of family behavior. These rules for the most part provide for various privileges and varying degrees responsibility (for example, time to go to bed and watch TV) for children and for adults. However, certain points apply to all family members equally. Here is one such clause: "No one should interrupt the speaker." It often seems to parents that what they want to say is much more important than the child's incoherent chatter about the events of school life.

However, if there is a general rule in the family, according to which any person can express everything that he did not like in the behavior of another, then the child always sees before his eyes an example of mutual respect. If a little boy can calmly say: “Mommy, you are interrupting me” and mother will answer without any indignation: “You are right, you are wrong and apologize, compliance with the established rules is an integral part of the behavior of adults.

And this is not seen as a positive quality of a sane and mature adult; it is the norm of human life. And the child is just desperately in need of such norms that could become a solid support for him. That is why, if mom says instead of the right words:

"Son, you don't understand. You simply have to listen to what I want to tell you, because it is very, very important, ”the boy will naturally try to find an excuse and a reasonable explanation for his behavior when he is given comments. The child's need to belong to the adult world is stronger than his need to be good. If the boundaries of obedience established in the family help him to belong to this world, then he will observe them. If belonging to the world of adults and attention to the child is ensured only by violating these boundaries, then he will violate them. In any case, your personal example will be decisive.

The difference between theory and practice may scare you, but once you accept the fact of its existence, it will be easier for you to find mutual language with baby. If you want to form boundaries with just words, you are wasting your time. If the boundaries are built with the help of actions and deeds, then the children learn the experience, remember it, absorb it into themselves - it becomes part of their nature.

Recently, my wife Barbie and I began to develop a responsible attitude towards money in our sons, seven-year-old Ricky and five-year-old Benny. The boys had to perform certain duties around the house, and we gave them a small amount of money weekly. Part of this amount was used to pay church tithes, part was pocket expenses, and part was put aside in a piggy bank. The children liked having money, but they had no idea what liability was. They took the existence of money for granted, believing that in the future there will be more and more of them. Barbie and I repeatedly told them that they should not spend all the money at once, that some part should be saved for a certain purchase.

The guys started crying. We sympathized with the children who cannot buy what they want, but their wallets remain empty. After a while, Benny said, "I'll be waiting a long, long time for the next time." And began to wait. And his brother too. The day of the next payment has arrived. Putting the received money in a pile, they thought hard: how to make it so that they save more and immediately spend less. Children learned a simple truth: if you spend all the money now, then there will be nothing left for later.

Endless admonitions and moralizing cannot achieve such a result. Only the boundaries of the parents will help develop the boundaries of the children. Parents are an oak tree, in which the child hits his head over and over again until he learns: the tree is stronger than the head, and therefore it is better to go around it.

Based on the book by Henry Cloud, John Townsend "Children: Limits, Limits"

Every family is happy when they bring a child home from maternity hospital. However, after the joy comes a period of worries and questions: is everything all right with my baby, does he know how to do what is necessary for his age? In order for the mother to be sure that her baby correctly makes her first contacts with the outside world, it is important for her to learn how to navigate the stages of growth healthy child. Criteria normal development, which we offer, have been developed by the Munich Academy for Early Development under the guidance of Professor Hellbrüge and have been adapted to the conditions of Belarus for many years.

INITIAL STAGE: DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEWBORN

For a newborn, the general bent position of the body is typical. All limbs are bent at the joints, the head is not straight, but tilted to the side. The fact is that the child was forced to be content with such a position in the mother's womb in order to occupy as little space as possible.

An awake healthy newborn does not mostly lie motionless, but vigorously flexes and extends the limbs. If you put the child on the stomach, then the position of general flexion is maintained, the elbows and knees are pulled up to the stomach, the pelvis does not lie on the surface, but is raised above it. He slowly turns his head from one cheek to the other, rather than lying with his head on the tabletop. If, in the position on the stomach, the newborn slightly presses on the feet, then he will jump forward. This is the so-called "reflex crawl".

At this age, the baby should have an innate reflex of automatic walking: with support for the torso, the child “marches” with his feet. Such movement should disappear by the second month of life, so as not to interfere with the formation of future true walking.

If you touch the baby’s palm, he will quickly squeeze all the fingers and capture the “prey” for a few seconds. The closed palm with the first fingers pressed is part of the general flexion posture of the awake, healthy newborn.
The newborn responds to bright light And loud sounds, wrinkles his face, blinks his eyes, shows a "fear reaction" with throwing his arms, or even starts to cry.

IN one month old a small person receives the first important impressions of his life through the skin. He feels heat and cold, the softness of touch. Healthy newborn calms down as soon as he is picked up and he can cling to the warm mother's body. Skin contact is most intense during breastfeeding. The child feels protected, the first positive knowledge is transferred to him, he gains the experience of contact.

A healthy newborn screams "at the top of his lungs", thus reacting to every unpleasant feeling. The development of speech begins with a powerful cry.

STAGE 1: DEVELOPMENT IN 1 MONTH

The general position of trunk flexion is maintained. Immediately after laying on the stomach, the child strives to raise his head and holds it for at least 3 seconds. In those seconds, the head shakes in different sides, then he puts it on the surface on one, then on the other cheek. If from a position on the back, pull the child by the handles to the “sitting” position, then his head is thrown back. Muscular strength is not yet sufficient to hold a heavy head. If the child is lying on his back, you may notice that his head is increasingly held on middle line, and does not deviate, as in a newborn, either in one direction or the other. By the end of the month, the child can hold this head position for up to 10 seconds.

While resting on the feet in a vertical position, the child straightens his legs. This reaction is still automatic; automatic walking is also preserved.

Nothing new happens in the development of grasping in the first month of life, the grasping reflex is preserved, the hands are still clenched into fists.

If you hold a red toy in front of the child's eyes at a distance of 20 centimeters, you can see that the child fixes his gaze on it. It turns out it is not immediately and at first for a very short time. To make sure that the child really fixes his eyes on the toy, you need to gradually move the toy from one side to the other. If the child shifts his gaze from the midline to the sides up to 45 degrees, then you can be sure that he already distinguishes much more than light and darkness in the neonatal period. Tracking a toy is rarely successful the first time, so it is recommended to patiently conduct several such tests.

During breastfeeding, the baby's face is turned towards the mother's face. He watches her face for a long time. Warm skin contact is complemented by loving eye contact. In this harmonious union, the mother should completely belong to the child and nothing should interfere with this contact. Moms who are unable to breastfeed should also keep their baby close to the breast, giving the baby a sense of security and affection.

In the cry of a child through, you can already notice the difference. Hunger and pain (most often in the abdomen) can cause a loud, relentless cry, while fatigue is expressed in a slightly muffled, plaintive cry. In the firstborn, the mother clearly notes this difference in the second month of life.

STAGE 2: DEVELOPMENT IN 2 MONTHS

In the position on the stomach, the child holds his head for more than 10 seconds. The child lies with an emphasis on the forearms, the arms are already pushed forward to the level of the face, and are not pulled under the chest. The pelvis and legs often lie on the surface, but there is still a tendency to bend. At the same time, the head can still periodically sway away from the midline. When pulling the child by the hands from the “on the back” position, the baby can hold his head in the “sitting” position for about 5 seconds.

In the development of walking, the 2nd month is a transitional phase. Reflex support on the legs and automatic walking fade away. The general flexion set in the 2nd month is significantly reduced, and the periods in which the palm is open are lengthened and this happens more often.

The most beautiful event of the 2nd month is the appearance of a smile. When the mother leans towards the child and addresses him with affectionate words, the child first carefully observes the mother's face and, finally, one day the mother notices that the child's mouth begins to develop into a timid, timid smile. These first manifestations mutual love give new impetus to mother and child in their ardent mutual affection.

In the second month, the baby makes sounds that are quiet and timid at first, and then become louder and more frequent. A "buzz" appears.

STAGE 3: DEVELOPMENT IN 3 MONTHS

The child lies confidently on his stomach, holding his head up for up to 1 minute. The general bending position of the body disappears, which allows the child to stretch his arms forward and lean on his forearms at an angle of 90 degrees in the elbow joints, the hands are half open. When pulling up by the handles, the head does not tilt back, but is held along the line of the body. Hands "meet" in the middle line (in front of the face). When verticalizing, the emphasis is on legs bent at the knees.
If you put a rattle in a child's hand, he does not hold it tightly, tries to put it in his mouth, grab it with his other hand. If you drive a toy in front of a child's face, he will follow it with his eyes, some children already know how to turn their heads in the direction of the toy.
Smiling appears more and more often and becomes a part of the child's behavior. Up to 6 months of life, the child will respond to a person's face with a smile. It is important to note that the child does not smile at objects. This smile is social. "Walking" becomes more varied and frequent.

STAGE 4: DEVELOPMENT IN 4 MONTHS

The child is no longer satisfied with his support on the forearms in the position on the stomach, but actively uses the strengthened muscles responsible for straightening the body. The head and chest rise high above the surface. The kid rests on his open palms, while straightening his legs. Vigorous movements shake the torso. He actively takes his own hands into his mouth, which become a toy and an object of study. Brings them to his face, often examines, and after a while, he manages to connect them together. The child opens not only his hands, but also willingly examines the objects that he was able to capture.

To the knowledge of the surrounding world joins the study of the mouth. For a few more months, the baby will put everything in his mouth.
The child experiences ever-increasing pleasure from smiling, and at the 4th month the smile turns into a cheerful laugh, more often as a reaction of communication with relatives or parents. When communicating with parents and relatives, the whole body of the baby takes part in expressing joy: the child smiles and laughs with his hands and face.

STAGE 5: DEVELOPMENT IN 5 MONTHS

The child continues to swing vigorously on his stomach. There is an emphasis on the straightened elbow joint. The child can hold the head and limbs, leaning on the table only with the torso - the so-called "fish" position.

At this time, a very important movement of self-turning from the back to the stomach appears. This usually happens when the child sees a new interesting toy or object of interest to him and wants to possess it. During this period, flexion of the limbs again dominates, but unlike the newborn, this flexion is active. At the same time, the child’s head is actively tilted so that the chin almost touches the chest, and the arms, bending, pull the torso. By contracting, the muscles of the abdomen and pelvis form the flexion of the hips, so that the thighs almost touch the abdomen. The whole movement ends with bending the knees.

The ability to lean on the legs is constantly increasing. At this age, it is enough to support the child slightly under the armpits. When supported, the legs straighten and hold the weight of the body for a few seconds. If the child is lying on his back and a toy is shown to him, he is already able to bring both handles in the direction of the object and touch it, although a clear grip has not yet been formed.

From 4 to 6 months, the child's skin no longer plays a leading role in understanding the world. Visual and auditory stimuli begin to predominate. The child has already learned to distinguish facial expressions and the tone of speech addressed to him. The baby's facial expression reflects complete despondency or surprise when his mother "sternly" addresses him. This is the first important sign for parents that their behavior is already different from the child. He understands negative emotions.

There were few changes in speech. Sometimes a child “forgets” even what he was able to pronounce before. However, there are also very “intelligent” children who repeat the sounds they have learned before in various combinations.

STAGE 6: DEVELOPMENT IN 6 MONTHS

At the end of the first six months of life, the child, lying on his stomach, leans only on straightened arms. At the same time, the fingers and palms are fully opened, the baby no longer compresses the handles into fists. The palms are always held in front of the face symmetrically with respect to the body.

If, in a pose on the stomach, a child is shown a rattle at the height of the eyes, then he will transfer the weight of the body to one hand, and with the free second he will grab the toy. Can balance in this position for more than 2 seconds. And if the toy lies in front of the baby and he wants to reach it, then he stretches his hand as much as possible, but is not yet able to move forward.

Most babies by the age of 6 months can sit up on their own. If an adult takes the child's hands, he understands this as an invitation to sit down.

At this age, the child is able to grab both large and small objects with all fingers, transfer them from one hand to another. The first thing he does with them is put them in his mouth. This movement should not excite parents. It means the final victory over the "primitive" reflex of "grasping" with the hand and indicates enough high degree movement coordination.

A six-month-old child has good hearing and formed attention. He already knows where the sound is coming from. This can be checked as follows: rustle tissue paper near his ear so that the child does not see. The baby should turn his head in the direction where the sound comes from.

In the 4th month of life, we talked about the social smile. At the 6th month, it becomes differentiated: the baby smiles at familiar faces, while it does not immediately react to strangers.

More and more emotions are reflected on the face of the crumbs, often only the friendly facial expressions of an adult sets the child up for a smile and contact. If the baby does not see his father, or other close people for several days, then he forgets them and considers them warily, as strangers.
Chains of sounds and syllables appear in the speech: “iii…”, “yeah…”, mom….” and others. This is the best music for young parents.

STAGE 7: DEVELOPMENT IN 7 MONTHS

A seven-month-old baby is already a lot and willingly gets up on all fours and reaches for objects in front of him and to the side, tries to sit down. Significantly increase the capabilities of the hands. To better examine the object, he takes it in both hands, shifts it from hand to hand, twirls it, swings it, knocks, tries to make a sound out of it. When the child lies on his back, he grabs his legs and plays with them. However, the main form of movement at this age is a quick turn from the back to the stomach. Moreover, the turn occurs with a clear division of movements between top body and pelvis, that is, in the form of a "screw". Following this movement, the child develops crawling and sitting skills. With special pleasure, a seven-month-old baby, supported under the armpits, “dances” on the lap of an adult. At the same time, the legs should actively bend and straighten in all joints.

At seven months, the child begins to follow the falling object. The baby bows its head or upper part body and looking for him with a look on the floor. Thus, the baby already understands that, having fallen out of his hands, objects never fly up, but only fall down.
Also, the child already knows how to drink from a cup held by an adult, does it quickly, touching the edge of the cup with his lips.
At this age, children babble for a long time, pronouncing the same syllables, and also willingly reproduce all the sounds that they have learned by this time, for example: “mmm”, vowels in combination with “b”, “g”, “ d", "x". They can study the lips of an adult for a long time, and after 1-5 minutes repeat after him: “ba-ba”, “ma-ma” and other syllables. Obviously, such speech does not carry a certain semantic load.
By the end of the month, some babies are already starting to crawl on all fours.

STAGE 8: DEVELOPMENT IN 8 MONTHS

At this age, the baby works out the movements that he mastered earlier. He is engaged in toys for a long time and in various ways: he pushes the ball, removes covers from objects, and so on. The functions of the hand are improved: the thing being held "travels" from the middle of the palm to the fingertips. The child can stand up on his own, pulling himself up by the support, squat, lie down on his side, turn on his stomach. Holding on to the barrier, he steps over with his feet and slowly walks sideways. Many babies start to crawl on all fours, which allows them to quickly get to the right place or object of interest. This skill is important condition for the formation of walking to a year of life.

At eight months, the baby sits on its own from a supine position, slightly turning on its side and pushing off the surface with one hand. However, he still does not know how to sit for a long time, he prefers to rest on his arms so as not to fall. The back is bent to make it easier to maintain balance.

The kid already distinguishes close people from those whom he has never seen or rarely seen. He does not allow everyone to pick him up or touch him, turns away from strangers, often with tears. The described reaction of fear to the image of strangers is an important stage in its development.

The child develops an interest in what adults are doing: he watches with curiosity the mother, who performs homework or writes. The kid reacts to his reflection in the mirror, makes contact with him - grins, looks into his eyes. At this age, a whisper appears for the first time, the baby discovers that he can speak very quietly, whisper and listen to himself with intense attention.
An eight-month-old child himself holds cookies, crackers, and a crust of bread, which are favorite at this age, meaningfully directs them into his mouth, bites off, pulls his hands up to the cup held by an adult, drinks, lightly holding the cup with his hands.

STAGE 9: DEVELOPMENT IN 9 MONTHS

At nine months, the child quickly and actively crawls in different directions, kneels, can play, kneeling, near the sofa, high chair. Moves along the support, holding with only one hand, half-turned, with a side step. Sit down, and sits with a flat back, while the legs are slightly bent. The function of the brush continues to improve: it can roll, take out, open, rattle, press, squeeze. If until recently, objects accidentally fell out of his hands when he saw something more interesting, now the kid has turned this process into a fun game. He deliberately drops toys, studies how they fall, and willingly repeats this movement.

Nine-month-old peanut to the question "Where?" points to familiar objects. Knows his own name, turns around when called, does not respond to someone else's name. He can already concentrate on quiet sounds: the ticking of a clock, a phone signal and listen to them for a long time.

The expressiveness of the child’s speech increases and double syllables can already be understood as the first separate words: “na-na”, “da-da”, “ba-ba”, “pa-pa”.

STAGE 10: DEVELOPMENT IN 10 MONTHS

A ten-month-old baby quickly sits down without the help of an adult, sits stably, with straightened legs and a straight back, can play in this position for a long time without losing balance. The child continues to actively crawl on all fours, stand at the support and walk along it with an added step, leaning on the floor with the whole foot. Toddlers have flat feet, as the arches of the feet are filled with fat pads, and the feet are often rounded. This should not worry parents, by 1.5 years the axis lower extremities correct under load. The child walks with pleasure if he is led with support by both handles, walks both with a side step and with an alternating one.

Hand function continues to improve. The child easily shifts an object from hand to hand, hits objects against each other different sizes. But the most important thing at this age is the formation of the so-called "tweezer" grip with the thumb and forefinger. This skill allows you to pick up very small objects (bread crumbs, cereal grains, beads) and hold them tightly, like with tweezers. This is the beginning of finger coordination, which is necessary for the development of all fine motor skills in the future.

The kid begins to throw objects with a swing, and not just releases them from his hands as before. At the same time, he gets great pleasure not only from the sound of a falling toy, but also from the possibility of actively influencing it. Most often, adults approve of this new game, they are amused by the behavior of the child, they stimulate him by giving discarded objects.

At 10 months, children try to repeat the gestures of adults: “bye - bye”, “patties”, “cooked porridge forty” and so on.
If you pronounce syllables several times, then the baby will reproduce them after the adult. Such a game between a child and an adult is equated to a dialogue.

STAGE 11: DEVELOPMENT IN 11 MONTHS

A child at this age easily climbs onto a sofa, armchair, chair, descends from them, crawls under an obstacle. Many children at this age begin to walk independently, but often fall. Therefore, the main means of transportation continues to be crawling. Some healthy children immediately begin to walk, bypassing crawling.

The kid discovers the opportunity to get the desired item by pulling it towards himself: he pulls the typewriter by the rope, pulls the tablecloth off the table, and so on.

At 11 months, the child already knows how to eat solid food from the hand, drinks from a cup, holding it with both hands, but the capabilities of the fingers of the hand continue to improve. A "grip grip" is formed, with which it holds the smallest objects. The difference in the "tweezers" and "forceps" grip is that in the first case, the thumb and forefinger are straightened, and in the second case they are bent.

At this age, the child tries to use learned sounds and syllables to designate situations, objects, people known to him. So, for example, he says “boo” when he plays with a car, or “um-am” when he sees his mother carrying food. Many babies begin to pronounce these first baby words much later.

STAGE 12: DEVELOPMENT IN 12 MONTHS

By this age, most children are already able to take a few steps without support, and crawling is used mainly for play. If the child moves only holding on to the support or hand of an adult, but the neurologist and orthopedist do not find any violations in him, then this should not be a cause for concern, the baby will start walking after a year.

Children at this age walk with their legs wide apart, with a slight forward lean. Pay attention to how the child places the foot: there should be no support on the fingers and on the inner surface of the foot. The arches are still not defined, as they are filled with fat pads.

If at 11 months the baby did not care where the object thrown by him fell, now he is already taking aim: he can put the object into a container, into an adult’s hand, drag it through a narrow hole.

The development of speech remains, as a rule, at the level of 11 months. The child no longer emits meaningless syllables, but begins to pronounce his first "childish" words: ko-ko, woof-woof, qua-qua. This is the beginning of real human speech.
A one-year-old baby likes to communicate with adults and older children, he develops a sense of humor, he can already joke. He is also interested in his peers, but so far the children only study each other, but do not play

In this article:

Despite the outward resemblance of a child to an adult, the anatomical and physiological characteristics of children differ greatly, primarily in terms of qualitative and quantitative characteristics. Children are growing and developing organisms. And if by the age of 11 they are getting closer in terms of indicators to adults, then in more early age differ significantly.

Children are considered people before puberty. Every child has it at a certain age. Girls' bodies are rebuilt earlier. Sometimes as early as 11 years old they show the first signs of puberty. Boys begin to mature around the age of 13-14.

But on average, it is considered that the period of childhood in children is up to 14 years. Each period is characterized by certain age-related anatomical and physiological features, as evidenced by the constantly changing proportions of the body.

Qualitative and quantitative changes in the child's body

When a baby is just born, the length of his head is a quarter of the total body length. Over time, this ratio increases, and when a person becomes an adult, the length of the head will be equal to the eighth of the length of the body.

Especially
noticeable changes in the first year after the birth of the baby into the world. The length and mass of his body is actively increasing. From about 5 to 7 years old and from 10 to 12 years old, children begin a period of so-called accelerated growth, and from 3 to 5 years and from 8 to 11 years - a period of increased weight gain. When the time of puberty comes, the child will again begin to grow rapidly and gain weight.

Age-related qualitative changes are directly related to quantitative ones. Parents need to take them into account when building the process of education and providing care for children. For example, weight gain and increased growth are invariably associated with the active development of two body systems at once - bone and muscle, in addition, at this time, some changes will also affect body functions - for example, motor.

Features of the skin of children

In the first years of life, the skin of children is thin, delicate, with an abundance of blood vessels and lymphatic capillaries. The horny layer of the skin is replaced quite often, especially in infants. Up to about school age children's skin is different
low indicators of elasticity, which increase only by 8 years.

If we compare the skin of children with the skin of adults, then in the former it is less resistant to external influences, but recovers faster in case of damage.

The functioning of the sweat glands begins at five months. Over the next years, they will continue to develop and are fully formed only in 5-7 years. It is with the imperfect work of the sweat glands that cases of frequent overheating or hypothermia in children are associated.

But the sebaceous skin glands begin to work already in the womb. They are responsible for the formation of a protective lubricant. A yellow crust on the head in infants, and subsequently acne during puberty, is associated with the production of a secret sebaceous glands in excess. Nails and hair in children appear before birth and continue to grow actively after they are born.

It is difficult to underestimate the role of the subcutaneous fat layer in a child's life. Given the softness and fragility of the still imperfect children's skeleton, it is this layer that prevents
the appearance of injuries with bruises, softening the blow. In addition, subcutaneous fat for a child is a source of energy.

Compliance with the feeding regime in the first year of life contributes to the active accumulation subcutaneous fat. Up to 11 months in children, as a rule, the thickness of the fold on the abdomen slightly to the side in relation to the navel should be up to 2 cm. Excess fat on the child's body is undesirable, as this negatively affects the immunity of the crumbs and can cause early atherosclerosis. In young children, the fat layer is dense due to the numerous fatty acids that make up it.

Muscle mass: the process of change

In the first months after birth, children do not have a sufficiently developed muscle mass, which at that time is no more than one-fourth of the total body weight (for comparison, in an adult, muscle mass is at least 40%). Muscle fibers in children are not so long,
like an adult, and noticeably thinner - this is how their age features in this period.

Gradually, as you get older, muscle fibers are getting longer. In the period from 3 to 7 years, the blood circulation process is established in the muscles, after which it is time to increase the mass of first the largest, and then the small muscles.

Muscles grow most actively during puberty - after 11-13 years. Concerning motor activity and its dependence on the state of the muscles, then the degree of maturity of the mechanisms of nervous regulation of muscle activity also matters here.

Parents should understand that in order for the child's muscular system to develop and improve, as well as the skeletal system, as well as the entire musculoskeletal system, he needs to provide the correct physical exercise. The achievements of the child at an early age, associated with the development of the nervous and muscular systems, are as follows:

The development of coordination of movements during walking in babies reaches its peak only by two years. If you deal with the baby, then by the age of 2.5 he will be able to climb the board with an inclination of 45 degrees.

Features of the development of the skeletal system in children

In the first months after birth bone the child is distinguished by a porous coarse fibrous mesh structure. It abounds in water, while there are few dense substances in it. It is with this factor that the excessive softness and elasticity of children's bones, which are simply amenable to deformation, are associated. However, if we compare the bones of a child with
bones of an adult, then the first one is not so brittle.

Blood is actively supplied to children's bones, so they quickly increase in size. In the process, some changes in the fibrous mesh structure occur, instead of which a lamellar one appears. Cartilage is replaced by bone tissue.

Meanwhile, for a long time, between the ends and the middle of a long tubular bone, cartilage plates necessary for bone growth remain. Their cells actively multiply, due to this, the child's skeleton grows. Premature closure of growth zones will lead to violations of the growth of bones in length, and the growth of the child will stop. The bone substance located in the periosteum zone is responsible for the thickening of the bones. In terms of structure, the bones of a child begin to resemble adults only by the age of 11-12.

cranial flat bones in infants after birth they are characterized by increased softness, and between them up to about three months there are sutures - fontanelles, which close over time. The largest fontanel (in the frontal and
parietal bones) closes no earlier than 11 months.

How correctly the process of ossification of the child's skeleton proceeds can be quite simply judged by the time in which his teeth begin to erupt. In rare cases, the first two teeth can erupt while still in the womb, and the baby is born with them. This is not very good, because at such an early age the teeth will interfere normal process breastfeeding.

By 24 months, a baby should already have 20 teeth. Milk teeth begin to change no earlier than 5-6 years, and this process will continue until 11-13 years.

Respiratory Development

The active process of development of the respiratory organs during the period of growth of the child contributes to the full saturation of the child's body with oxygen. At the same time, up to a certain point, the respiratory organs in children are characterized by immaturity. Babies have too short noses, narrow nasal passages, and the lower nasal passage is in the active stage of development.

Once in the nasal cavity, the air is poorly filtered and almost does not heat up. In case of hypothermia, the nasal mucosa due to excess capillaries
swells strongly, which leads to difficulties with breathing and, accordingly, with sucking.

Development paranasal sinuses nose falls only on the second or third year of a child's life. And such respiratory organs as the bronchi, pharynx and larynx, in babies are characterized by small sizes, which, when the mucosa swells, are further reduced.

The shape of the child's chest resembles a cylinder, for the most part due to the location of the ribs at right angles to the spine, which in turn imposes some restrictions on the depth of breathing.

In order for the blood to receive enough oxygen, the child is forced to breathe frequently, which is why it is so important that at an early age he spend as much time as possible on the street and get proper care, which does not allow inflammation of the mucous membranes of the respiratory tract.

Features of the development of the cardiovascular system

To ensure sufficient blood supply to the body, the cardiovascular system in children is forced to work in an intensive mode. This is due to the increased mass baby heart.

In infants in the first months after birth, the atria are especially large, while the ventricles are not fully formed. As the baby grows older, the muscular wall of the left ventricle becomes thicker, despite the fact that immediately
after birth, the wall thickness of both ventricles was the same. At about 5-6 years of age, the muscular wall of the left ventricle is twice as thick as the wall of the right ventricle.

Every year, the muscle fibers of the children's heart become more developed. Minimal Risk diseases of angina pectoris or heart attack at an early age is associated with abundant blood supply to the heart muscle.

main feature cardiovascular systems s of the child are wide large vessels, as well as a sufficient number of capillaries and small vessels. It is more difficult for the heart muscle to work in such conditions, especially if the body is affected by an infection or virus.

You can train the heart muscle in moderate, age-appropriate exercise and hardening.

The digestive system of a child's body

The main organs of digestion are:

• oral cavity;
• pancreas;
• esophagus;
• liver.

The oral cavity is replenished with teeth, as already noted, gradually. By the age of two, children should have 20 teeth. The oral mucosa in childhood is distinguished by special tenderness, and in the first months after birth it is characterized
excessive dryness due to lack of saliva. Over time, when the first teeth begin to erupt, salivation begins to improve, and it becomes so plentiful that the child does not always have time to swallow.

Up to a year, a child has a fairly large tongue with well-developed papillae on it, so children distinguish tastes well. Healthy babies born on time have a developed sucking reflex.

In young children, the stomach has a relatively small size- this explains the frequent regurgitation after eating and even vomiting. The mucous membrane is distinguished by digestive glands similar to the adult body, which are under development. As the child grows and matures, his stomach assumes a vertical position.

food in baby stomach does not stay more than 3.5 hours. Especially quickly removed from it breast milk while alternative blends and high-fat foods stay longer.

The intestines in children are much longer than in adults, and with a highly developed network of capillaries. The active work of parietal digestion contributes to the processing of enough a large number food, covering the needs of the body in the necessary for growth nutrients. It is important to feed your baby foods that are appropriate for their age.
to avoid digestive problems that can threaten not only the health, but also the life of the child.

The liver in children is also noticeably larger than the liver of an adult. It makes up almost half of all abdominal cavity baby. The development of the liver lasts an average of 4-5 years. The older the child becomes, the more dense substances will be in the liver.

Urination system: features

Kidneys in children are lower than in adults, and twice as large as their mass. For for long years this organ remains immature and finally matures only by the age of 12.

The structure of the ureters is characterized by increased tortuosity. They are much wider than in adults, which sometimes leads to stagnation of urine. Immediately after birth bladder in children located at the front abdominal wall and only by 24 months descends into the pelvic area. capacity of it
increases with age and reaches 800-900 ml by the age of 11.

Age features urethra have some gender differences. So, if in boys its length after birth is about 6 cm, then in girls it is up to 1 cm.

In the first days after birth, the child urinates no more than 6 times a day. Already in the middle of the month, the number increases to 20, and by the year it approaches 15 times a day. At 3 years old, the child feels the need to empty the bladder no more than 10 times a day, at 6-7 years old - 7 times. The daily amount of urine excreted increases as the child grows and reaches 1500 ml by the age of 11-13, while in the first six months it is no more than 600 ml.

Blood and changes associated with it

The quality of blood in a baby inside the womb differs markedly from the quality of the blood of a child after a year and an adult, largely due to the changing number of blood cells.
In children's blood, red cells and hemoglobin are one and a half times more. At the same time, the hemoglobin of the child in the womb is several times more active than the hemoglobin of an adult due to the receipt of oxygen supplied through the mother's red blood cells approaching the placenta.

At 36-37 intrauterine weeks, and then in the first weeks after birth, active shift erythrocytes containing fetal hemoglobin to erythrocytes containing A-hemoglobin. The number of erythrocytes at the same time decreases.

During this period - up to 5 months - it is very important to provide the baby with everything necessary for the normal course of the hematopoietic process to prevent the development of anemia due to a lack of copper, iron, cobalt and a number of other vitamins and minerals. That is why in the first month of life, the baby is given vitamins and juices containing the necessary components. At an early age, anemia can develop in children due to chronic intoxication or frequent illnesses.

At 4-5 years old, the number and quality of leukocytes in a child differs from that of an adult. Neutrophils up to 5 years in children are almost two times less, and
more lymphocytes. By the age of 5-6, this ratio becomes approximately the same as in adults.

The role of white blood cells can hardly be overestimated for the development child's body because they stand guard against harmful intrusions. The antibodies that are part of the blood serum make it possible to neutralize the toxins and microbes entering the body.

In the first months of a child's life protective organisms remain immature, so vaccination is used to further protect them.

How do the endocrine and nervous systems develop?

The development of the endocrine and nervous systems in children ends only by the age of 18-20. The earliest in terms of development are the pituitary gland, endocrine glands, as well as forked and thyroid gland, part of the pancreas. Their development ends at preschool age.

But the adrenal glands in children require more time to mature and form functionality. This process continues up to 10-11 years. On the growth of children during puberty and metabolism in the body is greatly influenced by the sex glands. During this period, the functions of the endocrine glands periodically decrease and increase.

Development nervous system the child falls on the entire period of his childhood, that is, up to 14 years. After birth, the child remains the same number nerve cells, as in the womb, while the brain and spinal cord continue to develop and increase in mass. If a baby immediately after birth, the brain weighs about 350-380 g, then by 11-12 months its mass doubles, and by three years - three times. At 10-11 years old, the child's brain weighs 1350 g, while in adulthood, a man's mass is 1400 g, and a woman's is 1270 g.

As children grow and mature, the processes of nerve cells become longer, the convolutions of the brain change. The brain develops and improves most actively in the period up to 8 years. It is from the schedule of maturation of the structures of the nervous system that the child's skills such as running, sitting, walking, speech and others will depend.

Immediately after birth, the child's autonomic nervous system is already working. It is responsible for the functioning of vascular tone and a number of internal organs, for reactions and a complex of processes that play an important role in life.
child's body. When environmental conditions worsen, the functions of the autonomic nervous system stop working as they should.

The central nervous system develops from the bottom up. The first changes concern the spinal cord, followed by the lower parts of the brain, after which the subcortex and cortex change. This development meets the needs of the child's body. The process contributes to the provision of vital important functions in children:

• breathing;
• sucking;
• swallowing;
• work of the cardiovascular systems, etc.

Who was born on time healthy baby sucking, defensive and swallowing reflexes are well expressed. They will form the basis for the development of conditioned reflexes associated with sounds, images, body positions. Conditioned reflex activity allows the child to try his hand at performing purposeful action such as communication.

It is possible to talk about the normal development of the nervous system and the activity of the child only by providing him with normal care, upbringing and schooling in accordance with the daily routine necessary for his age, where the loads will be replaced by rest. An equally important factor for the normal development of the child will be the observance of hygiene rules and an active healthy lifestyle.