Alexander's foreign policy 2 chronological table. Foreign policy of Alexander II

The future ruler of Russia was born on April 17, 1818 in Moscow. He became the first and only heir to the throne born in the mother see since 1725. There, on May 5, the baby was baptized in the Cathedral of the Chudov Monastery.

The boy received a good education at home. One of his mentors was the poet V. A. Zhukovsky. He told the crowned parents that he would prepare his pupil not to be a rude martinet, but a wise and enlightened monarch, so that he would see in Russia not a parade ground and a barracks, but a great nation.

The poet’s words turned out to be not empty bravado. Both he and other educators did a lot to ensure that the heir to the throne became truly educated, culturally and progressively thinking person. From the age of 16, the young man began to take part in the administration of the empire. His father introduced him to the Senate, then to the Holy Governing Synod and other highest government bodies. A young man passed by and military service, and quite successfully. During Crimean War(1853-1856) he commanded the troops stationed in the capital and held the rank of general.

The reign of Alexander II (1855-1881)

Domestic policy

Emperor Alexander II, who ascended the throne, inherited a difficult inheritance. A lot of foreign policy and domestic policy issues have accumulated. Financial position the country was extremely difficult due to the Crimean War. The state, in fact, found itself isolated, pitting itself against the strongest countries in Europe. Therefore, the first step of the new emperor was the conclusion of the Paris Peace, signed on March 18, 1856.

The signing was attended by Russia on the one hand and the allied states of the Crimean War on the other. These are France, Britain, Austria, Prussia, Sardinia and Ottoman Empire. Peace terms for Russian Empire turned out to be quite soft. She returned the previously occupied territories to Turkey, and in return received Kerch, Balaklava, Kamysh and Sevastopol. Thus, the foreign policy blockade was broken.

On August 26, 1856, the coronation took place in the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin. In this regard, came out highest manifesto. He granted benefits individual categories subjects, suspended recruitment for 3 years and abolished military settlements since 1857, which were widely practiced during the reign of Nicholas I.

But the most important thing in the activities of the new emperor was abolition of serfdom. A manifesto about this was announced on February 19, 1861. At that time, there were 23 million serfs out of 62 million people inhabiting the Russian Empire. This reform was not perfect, but it destroyed the existing social order and became a catalyst for other reforms that affected the court, finance, army, and education.

The merit of Emperor Alexander II is that he found the strength to suppress the resistance of opponents of the changes, which were many nobles and officials. In general, public opinion in the empire sided with the sovereign. And the court flatterers called him Tsar-Liberator. This nickname has taken root among the people.

A discussion of the constitutional structure began in the country. But the question was not about a constitutional monarchy, but only about some limitation of absolute royal power. It was planned to expand the State Council and create a General Commission, which would include representatives of zemstvos. As for the Parliament, they did not intend to create it.

The emperor planned to sign the papers, which were the first step towards a constitution. He announced this on March 1, 1881 during breakfast with Grand Duke Mikhail Nikolaevich. And literally a couple of hours later the sovereign was killed by terrorists. Russian Empire in Once again bad luck.

At the end of January 1863, an uprising began in Poland. At the end of April 1864 it was suppressed. 128 instigators were executed, 800 were sent to hard labor. But these speeches accelerated peasant reform in Poland, Lithuania, and Belarus.

Foreign policy

Emperor Alexander II pursued a foreign policy taking into account the further expansion of the borders of the Russian Empire. The defeat in the Crimean War showed the backwardness and weakness of weapons in the land army and navy. Therefore, a new foreign policy concept was created, which was inextricably linked with technological reforms in the field of weapons. All these issues were supervised by Chancellor A. M. Gorchakov. He was considered an experienced and efficient diplomat and significantly increased the prestige of Russia.

In 1877-1878, the Russian Empire fought with Turkey. As a result of this military campaign, Bulgaria was liberated. It became an independent state. IN Central Asia Vast territories were annexed. The empire also included North Caucasus, Bessarabia, Far East. As a result of all this, the country has become one of the largest in the world.

In 1867, Russia sold Alaska to America (for more details, see the article Who Sold Alaska to America). Subsequently, this caused a lot of controversy, especially since the price was relatively low. In 1875, the Kuril Islands were transferred to Japan in exchange for Sakhalin Island. In these matters, Alexander II was guided by the fact that Alaska and the Kuril Islands are remote, unprofitable lands that are difficult to manage. At the same time some politicians criticized the emperor for annexing Central Asia and the Caucasus. The conquest of these lands cost Russia great human sacrifices and material costs.

The personal life of Emperor Alexander II was complex and confusing. In 1841 he married Princess Maximiliana Wilhelmina Augusta Sophia Maria of Hesse (1824-1880) of the Hessian dynasty. The bride converted to Orthodoxy in December 1840 and became Maria Alexandrovna, and on April 16, 1841 the wedding took place. The couple have been married for almost 40 years. The wife gave birth to 8 children, but the crowned husband was not distinguished by fidelity. He regularly took on mistresses (favorites).

Alexander II with his wife Maria Alexandrovna

Her husband's infidelities and childbirth undermined the empress's health. She was often sick, and died in the summer of 1880 from tuberculosis. She was buried in the Peter and Paul Cathedral in St. Petersburg.

Less than a year had passed after the death of his wife, and the sovereign entered into an organic marriage with his longtime favorite Ekaterina Dolgoruka (1847-1922). The relationship with her began in 1866, when the girl was 19 years old. In 1972, she gave birth to a son from the emperor, named George. Then three more children were born.

It should be noted that Emperor Alexander II loved Dolgorukaya very much and was very attached to her. By a special decree, he bestowed the surname Yuryevsky and the titles of His Serene Highness on the children born from her. As for the environment, it disapproved of the organic marriage with Dolgoruka. The hostility was so strong that after the death of the sovereign, the newly-made wife and their children emigrated from the country and settled in Nice. There Catherine died in 1922.

The years of Alexander II's reign were marked by several attempts on his life (read more in the article Attempts on Alexander II). In 1879, the Narodnaya Volya members sentenced the emperor to death. However, fate protected the sovereign for a long time, and the assassination attempts were thwarted. It should be noted here that the Russian Tsar was not known for cowardice and, despite the danger, appeared in in public places either alone or with a small retinue.

But on March 1, 1881, the autocrat’s luck changed. The terrorists carried out their murder plan. The assassination attempt was carried out on the Catherine Canal in St. Petersburg. The body of the sovereign was mutilated by the bomb thrown. On the same day, Emperor Alexander II died, having taken communion. He was buried on March 7 in the Peter and Paul Cathedral next to his first wife Maria Alexandrovna. Alexander III ascended the Russian throne.

Leonid Druzhnikov

The explosions of the Crimean War were still thundering, Russian valiant soldiers were fighting the Turks, the whistle of bullets was heard when Alexander II ascended the Russian throne. The emperor had to solve many problems and tasks in the foreign policy of the state. Firstly, it was necessary to stop the Crimean War, since it was already a burden for the Russian Empire. Secondly, it was necessary to establish itself on the European stage. As for the southern borders, Alexander II also sought to expand them. With all these tasks Russian Emperor nailed it. In addition, mutually beneficial agreements were concluded with the Far Eastern countries, and Alaska was sold to America. More details about all this in this lesson.

Rice. 2. Eastern (Crimean) War ()

As a result, Russia found itself in international isolation. The primary task facing Alexander II was to restore its former greatness. To do this, it was necessary, first of all, to resolve matters of internal politics, that is, to strengthen the state, make it stronger. Therefore, in foreign policy, he temporarily adopts a wait-and-see tactic while Russia deals with its domestic politics.

During the reign of Alexander II, a graduate of the Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum, an outstanding diplomat and politician, became the new Minister of Foreign Affairs. Alexander Mikhailovich Gorchakov(Fig. 3) . He sought to prevent Russia from being drawn into new European conflicts. Russian society was dissatisfied because it was believed that Russia was not seeking to regain its lost positions, but the wise Gorchakov replied: “Russia is reproached for being isolated and silent. They say that Russia is sulking. Russia is not sulking, Russia is concentrating.” Thus, Gorchakov showed that until the critical issues in domestic policy Until Russia regains its former power and finds allies in the international arena, it will not enter into new wars.

Rice. 3. Gorchakov A.M. ()

The first task facing Gorchakov in the European direction was to upset the anti-Russian coalition that had emerged as a result of the Crimean War. In 1859, Russia concluded a number of treaties with France. However, the Polish uprising of 1863-1864 soon began. England and France provided active assistance to the rebel Poles. The only state that sided with Russia was Prussia. The Prussian leadership allowed Russia to pursue Polish rebels on its territory. Therefore, Russia is changing its foreign policy tactics: From rapprochement with France, Russia moves to rapprochement and improvement of relations with Prussia.

Soon, new wars broke out in Europe: the Austro-Prussian War (1866) and the Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871). In these wars, Russia supported Prussia. The result of these wars was the victory of Prussia, thereby changing the balance of power in Europe.

France was greatly weakened, and Russia, taking advantage of this, declared at the London Conference in 1871 that it was no longer going to fulfill the humiliating conditions of the Paris Peace Treaty. As a result of the efforts made by Gorchakov, Russia was allowed to have a fleet in the Black Sea. England, France and Turkey were not happy with this outcome, but now Russia’s ally was powerful, growing Germany.

It was important for Russia to join the Union of Three Emperors in 1873.(Fig. 4) . This alliance was formed between the emperors of Russia (Alexander II), Germany (Wilhelm I) and Austria-Hungary (Franz Joseph I).

Rice. 4. Austrian Emperor Franz Joseph, German Emperor Wilhelm I, Russian Emperor Alexander III and Empress Maria Feodorovna during a meeting on September 17, 1884 in Skierniewtsy ()

Another important direction in the policy of Alexander II was the development of Central Asia. In the 1860s, Russia accepted the Kazakh tribe. Now the Russian sovereign took care of these people too. However, the Kazakhs were constantly threatened by their southern neighbors, namely three states: the Bukhara Emirate, the Kokand and Khiva khanates. There were attempts to build a line of fortifications to protect the southern Russian territories from raids by the Bukharians and Kokands. However, these attempts were unsuccessful.

As a result, in 1865, General M.G. Chernyaev led Russian troops in an attack to resolve the so-called southern conflict. He managed to capture the city of Tashkent, one of the largest in Central Asia. In this city, the creation of a new Russian province - Turkestan - was proclaimed. Its leader was the hero of the Central Asian wars - General K.P. Kaufman. Russian opponents could not come to terms with this, and the Bukhara Emirate declared a Holy War on Russia. But this war was not successful for the Bukhara Emirate. General Kaufman led Russian troops into the attack and captured Samarkand.

The result of the war was the recognition of dependence on Russia by the Bukhara Emirate, Kokand and Khiva Khanates. Thus, the development of Asia continued successfully (Fig. 5) .

Rice. 5. The southern direction of the foreign policy of Alexander II ()

The Asian side was dissatisfied, and new attempts began to break out of Russia's subordination. In order to finally pacify the enemy, the famous General M.D. was sent from St. Petersburg to lead the Central Asian troops. Skobelev (Fig. 6), nicknamed “White General”.

Rice. 6. M.D. Skobelev ()

In 1876, having inflicted a series of defeats on the Kokand people, Skobelev forced the khan to recognize Russian citizenship.

There remained one more serious enemy for Russia - the Akhal-Teke oasis; it was believed that the Akhal-Teke fortress was impregnable. But Skobelev’s campaign in 1881 ended with the fall of the Akhal-Teke oasis, and Russia had no more enemies in the Asian region.

Central Asia was conquered by the Russian Empire.

Under Alexander II, Russian territories expanded to Far East.

In 1860, the Treaty of Beijing was signed with China., according to which the Ussuri region was ceded to Russia. In 1860, Russian sailors founded one of the central cities in this region - Vladivostok (Fig. 7).

Rice. 7. Vladivostok in the 19th century. ()

In 1875, an important treaty was signed with Japan, according to which Russia received the entire island of Sakhalin, and the ridge Kuril Islands transferred to Japan.

As a result, Russia's position in the Far East strengthened.

Sale of Alaska to the USA

Besides, important event The sale of Alaska became part of Alexander II's policy. It was not very important for Russia, the costs of its maintenance were very high, and this region brought little income. Thus, maintaining Alaska was unprofitable for the Russian Empire. Therefore, America's offer to buy Alaska was very relevant for Russia.

As a result, in 1867 in Washington, AlexanderIIsigned a treaty under which Alaska passed into the hands of the United States for the amount of $7 million.

To summarize this topic, we can say that the foreign policy of Alexander II was successful. Russia expanded its territories and strengthened its influence in a number of new regions. Russia was also able to achieve the annulment of the humiliating articles of the Paris Peace, as well as strengthen its influence in the international arena.

Bibliography

1. Zayonchkovsky A.M. Eastern War 1853-1856. - St. Petersburg: Polygon, 2002.

2. Ivanov P.P. Essays on the history of Central Asia (XVI - mid-XIX centuries). - M., 1958.

3. Lazukova N.N., Zhuravleva O.N. Russian history. 8th grade. - M.: “Ventana-Graf”, 2013.

4. Lyashenko L.M. Russian history. 8th grade. - M.: “Drofa”, 2012.

Homework

1. Describe the foreign policy of the Russian Empire under Alexander II in the European direction. What main events of this policy can you identify and what were their results?

2. What was the importance of annexing the southern lands to the Russian Empire?

3. What were the main achievements made by Russia in Far Eastern foreign policy under Alexander II?

4. Do you think selling Alaska to America is a smart economic and political move or a rash act of recklessness?

The explosions of the Crimean War were still thundering, Russian valiant soldiers were fighting the Turks, the whistle of bullets was heard when Alexander II ascended the Russian throne. The emperor had to solve many problems and tasks in the foreign policy of the state. Firstly, it was necessary to stop the Crimean War, since it was already a burden for the Russian Empire. Secondly, it was necessary to establish itself on the European stage. As for the southern borders, Alexander II also sought to expand them. The Russian emperor successfully coped with all these tasks. In addition, mutually beneficial agreements were concluded with the Far Eastern countries, and Alaska was sold to America. More details about all this in this lesson.

Rice. 2. Eastern (Crimean) War ()

As a result, Russia found itself in international isolation. The primary task facing Alexander II was to restore its former greatness. To do this, it was necessary, first of all, to resolve matters of internal politics, that is, to strengthen the state, make it stronger. Therefore, in foreign policy, he temporarily adopts a wait-and-see tactic while Russia deals with its domestic politics.

During the reign of Alexander II, a graduate of the Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum, an outstanding diplomat and politician, became the new Minister of Foreign Affairs. Alexander Mikhailovich Gorchakov(Fig. 3) . He sought to prevent Russia from being drawn into new European conflicts. Russian society was dissatisfied because it was believed that Russia was not seeking to regain its lost positions, but the wise Gorchakov replied: “Russia is reproached for being isolated and silent. They say that Russia is sulking. Russia is not sulking, Russia is concentrating.” Thus, Gorchakov showed that until the most important issues in domestic politics are resolved, until Russia regains its former power and finds allies in the international arena, it will not enter into new wars.

Rice. 3. Gorchakov A.M. ()

The first task facing Gorchakov in the European direction was to upset the anti-Russian coalition that had emerged as a result of the Crimean War. In 1859, Russia concluded a number of treaties with France. However, the Polish uprising of 1863-1864 soon began. England and France provided active assistance to the rebel Poles. The only state that sided with Russia was Prussia. The Prussian leadership allowed Russia to pursue Polish rebels on its territory. Therefore, Russia is changing its foreign policy tactics: From rapprochement with France, Russia moves to rapprochement and improvement of relations with Prussia.

Soon, new wars broke out in Europe: the Austro-Prussian War (1866) and the Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871). In these wars, Russia supported Prussia. The result of these wars was the victory of Prussia, thereby changing the balance of power in Europe.

France was greatly weakened, and Russia, taking advantage of this, declared at the London Conference in 1871 that it was no longer going to fulfill the humiliating conditions of the Paris Peace Treaty. As a result of the efforts made by Gorchakov, Russia was allowed to have a fleet in the Black Sea. England, France and Turkey were not happy with this outcome, but now Russia’s ally was powerful, growing Germany.

It was important for Russia to join the Union of Three Emperors in 1873.(Fig. 4) . This alliance was formed between the emperors of Russia (Alexander II), Germany (Wilhelm I) and Austria-Hungary (Franz Joseph I).

Rice. 4. Austrian Emperor Franz Joseph, German Emperor Wilhelm I, Russian Emperor Alexander III and Empress Maria Feodorovna during a meeting on September 17, 1884 in Skierniewtsy ()

Another important direction in the policy of Alexander II was the development of Central Asia. In the 1860s, Russia accepted the Kazakh tribe. Now the Russian sovereign took care of these people too. However, the Kazakhs were constantly threatened by their southern neighbors, namely three states: the Bukhara Emirate, the Kokand and Khiva khanates. There were attempts to build a line of fortifications to protect the southern Russian territories from raids by the Bukharians and Kokands. However, these attempts were unsuccessful.

As a result, in 1865, General M.G. Chernyaev led Russian troops in an attack to resolve the so-called southern conflict. He managed to capture the city of Tashkent, one of the largest in Central Asia. In this city, the creation of a new Russian province - Turkestan - was proclaimed. Its leader was the hero of the Central Asian wars - General K.P. Kaufman. Russian opponents could not come to terms with this, and the Bukhara Emirate declared a Holy War on Russia. But this war was not successful for the Bukhara Emirate. General Kaufman led Russian troops into the attack and captured Samarkand.

The result of the war was the recognition of dependence on Russia by the Bukhara Emirate, Kokand and Khiva Khanates. Thus, the development of Asia continued successfully (Fig. 5) .

Rice. 5. The southern direction of the foreign policy of Alexander II ()

The Asian side was dissatisfied, and new attempts began to break out of Russia's subordination. In order to finally pacify the enemy, the famous General M.D. was sent from St. Petersburg to lead the Central Asian troops. Skobelev (Fig. 6), nicknamed “White General”.

Rice. 6. M.D. Skobelev ()

In 1876, having inflicted a series of defeats on the Kokand people, Skobelev forced the khan to recognize Russian citizenship.

There remained one more serious enemy for Russia - the Akhal-Teke oasis; it was believed that the Akhal-Teke fortress was impregnable. But Skobelev’s campaign in 1881 ended with the fall of the Akhal-Teke oasis, and Russia had no more enemies in the Asian region.

Central Asia was conquered by the Russian Empire.

Under Alexander II, Russian territories expanded in the Far East.

In 1860, the Treaty of Beijing was signed with China., according to which the Ussuri region was ceded to Russia. In 1860, Russian sailors founded one of the central cities in this region - Vladivostok (Fig. 7).

Rice. 7. Vladivostok in the 19th century. ()

In 1875, an important treaty was signed with Japan, according to which Russia received the entire island of Sakhalin, and the ridge of the Kuril Islands was transferred to Japan.

As a result, Russia's position in the Far East strengthened.

Sale of Alaska to the USA

In addition, an important event in the policy of Alexander II was the sale of Alaska. It was not very important for Russia, the costs of its maintenance were very high, and this region brought little income. Thus, maintaining Alaska was unprofitable for the Russian Empire. Therefore, America's offer to buy Alaska was very relevant for Russia.

As a result, in 1867 in Washington, AlexanderIIsigned a treaty under which Alaska passed into the hands of the United States for the amount of $7 million.

To summarize this topic, we can say that the foreign policy of Alexander II was successful. Russia expanded its territories and strengthened its influence in a number of new regions. Russia was also able to achieve the annulment of the humiliating articles of the Paris Peace, as well as strengthen its influence in the international arena.

Bibliography

1. Zayonchkovsky A.M. Eastern War 1853-1856. - St. Petersburg: Polygon, 2002.

2. Ivanov P.P. Essays on the history of Central Asia (XVI - mid-XIX centuries). - M., 1958.

3. Lazukova N.N., Zhuravleva O.N. Russian history. 8th grade. - M.: “Ventana-Graf”, 2013.

4. Lyashenko L.M. Russian history. 8th grade. - M.: “Drofa”, 2012.

Homework

1. Describe the foreign policy of the Russian Empire under Alexander II in the European direction. What main events of this policy can you identify and what were their results?

2. What was the importance of annexing the southern lands to the Russian Empire?

3. What were the main achievements made by Russia in Far Eastern foreign policy under Alexander II?

4. Do you think selling Alaska to America is a smart economic and political move or a rash act of recklessness?

In politics, as in everything public life, not to go forward means to be thrown back.

Lenin Vladimir Ilyich

Alexander 2 went down in history as a reformer. During his reign, significant changes took place in Russia, the main one of which concerns the solution of the peasant question. In 1861, Alexander II abolished serfdom. Such a radical step was long overdue, but its implementation was associated with big amount difficulties. The abolition of serfdom required the emperor to carry out other reforms that were supposed to return Russia to a leading position on the world stage. The country has accumulated great amount problems that had not been resolved since the era of Alexander 1 and Nicholas 1. The new emperor had to place great emphasis on solving these problems, carrying out largely liberal reforms, since the previous path of conservatism to positive consequences didn't bring it.

The main reasons for reforming Russia

Alexander 2 came to power in 1855, and he immediately faced an acute problem in carrying out reforms in almost all spheres of state life. The main reasons for the reforms of the era of Alexander 2 are as follows:

1. Defeat in the Crimean War.
2. Growing discontent of the people.
3. Losing economic competition to Western countries.
4. Progressive entourage of the emperor.

Most of the transformations were carried out in the period 1860 - 1870. They went down in history under the name “liberal reforms of Alexander 2.” Today the word “liberal” often scares people, but in fact, it was during this era that the basic principles of the functioning of the state were laid down, which lasted until the end of the Russian Empire. It is also important to understand here that even though the previous era was called “the apogee of autocracy,” this was flattery. Nicholas 1 was drunk on victory in Patriotic War, and apparent dominance over European countries. He was afraid to make significant changes in Russia. Therefore, the country actually reached a dead end, and his son Alexander 2 was forced to solve the gigantic problems of the Empire.

What reforms were carried out

We have already said that major reform Alexander 2 is the abolition of serfdom. It was this transformation that confronted the country with the need to modernize all other areas. In short, the main changes were as follows.

Financial reform 1860 - 1864. A state bank, zemstvo and commercial banks are created. The activities of banks were mainly aimed at supporting industry. IN Last year reforms, control bodies are created, independent of local authorities, which carry out inspections financial activities authorities.

Zemstvo reform of 1864. With its help, the problem of attracting the broad masses of the population to solve everyday issues was solved. Elected bodies of zemstvo and local self-government were created.

Judicial reform of 1864. After the reform, the court became more “legal.” Under Alexander 2, jury trials were introduced for the first time, transparency, the ability to bring any person to trial regardless of his position, the independence of the court from local administrations, corporal punishment was abolished, and much more.

Educational reform of 1864. This reform completely changed the system that Nicholas 1 tried to build, who sought to separate the population from knowledge. Alexander 2 promoted the principle of public education, which would be accessible to all classes. For this purpose new primary schools and gymnasiums. In particular, it was during the Alexander era that women's gymnasiums began to open and women were admitted to the civil service.

Censorship reform of 1865. These changes absolutely supported the previous course. Control continued to be exercised over everything that was published, since revolutionary activities in Russia were extremely active.

Urban reform of 1870. It was mainly aimed at improving cities, developing markets, healthcare, education, establishing sanitary standards and so on. Reforms were introduced in 509 cities out of 1,130 in Russia. The reform was not applied to cities located in Poland, Finland and Central Asia.

Military reform 1874. It was mainly spent on the modernization of weapons, the development of the fleet and the training of personnel. As a result Russian army has once again become one of the leading companies in the world.

Consequences of reforms

The reforms of Alexander 2 had the following consequences for Russia:

• Prospects have been created for building a capitalist model of the economy. The level of state regulation of the economy was reduced in the country, and a free labor market was created. However, the industry was not 100% ready to accept the capitalist model. This required more time.
• The foundations for the formation have been laid civil society. The population received more civil rights and freedom. This applies to all areas of activity, from education to real freedoms of movement and work.
• Strengthening the opposition movement. The bulk of the reforms of Alexander 2 were liberal, therefore liberal movements, which were attributed to Nicholas the First, began to gain strength again. It was during this era that the key aspects that led to the events of 1917 were laid down.

Defeat in the Crimean War as a justification for reforms

Russia lost the Crimean War for several reasons:

• Lack of communications. Russia is a huge country and it is very difficult to move an army across it. Nicholas 1 began construction to solve this problem railway, but this project was not implemented due to banal corruption. The money intended for the construction of a railway connecting Moscow and the Black Sea region was simply torn apart.
• Disagreement in the army. The soldiers and officers did not understand each other. There was a whole gulf between them, both class and educational. The situation was aggravated by the fact that Nicholas 1 demanded severe punishment of soldiers for any offense. This is where the nickname of the Emperor among the soldiers comes from - “Nikolai Palkin”.
• Military-technical lag behind Western countries.

Today, many historians say that the scale of the defeat in the Crimean War was simply gigantic, and this is the main factor indicating that Russia needed reforms. This idea is supported and supported, among other things, by Western countries. After the capture of Sevastopol, all European publications wrote that autocracy in Russia had outlived its usefulness, and the country needed changes. But the main problem was different. In 1812 Russia won great victory. This victory created among the emperors the absolute illusion that the Russian army was invincible. And now the Crimean War dispelled this illusion, Western armies demonstrate their superiority in technical terms. All this led to the fact that officials, who pay great attention to opinions from abroad, accepted a national inferiority complex and began to try to convey it to the entire population.

But the truth is that the scale of defeat in the war is extremely overestimated. Of course, the war was lost, but this does not mean that Alexander 2 ruled a weak Empire. It must be remembered that in the Crimean War Russia was opposed by the best and most developed countries of Europe at that time. And despite this, England and its other allies still remember this war and the valor of Russian soldiers with horror.

The personality of Alexander II stands out from other emperors Russia XIX century. He inherited the throne immediately after the defeat of the empire in the Crimean War. The son of the conservative Nicholas I spent a series of events in the country liberal reforms. For the abolition of serfdom, Alexander II was called the Emperor-Liberator. Judicial, zemstvo, city and other reforms of 1860-1870. gave impetus to the development of the country.

In foreign policy, the emperor and his associates had to face a series of challenges. The main task was to eliminate the consequences of the lost Crimean War and overcome the international isolation of the empire. In 1863-1864. There was an uprising in the Kingdom of Poland. During the reign of Alexander II, a victorious war against Turkey took place, and the peoples of the Balkans were liberated.

The logical conclusion of the foreign and domestic political undertakings of Alexander II was an attempt at constitutional reform of the Russian Empire. The tragic death of the emperor interrupted the liberal course. Emperor Alexander III returned to conservative politics and curtailed the constitutional initiatives of his father and his associates.

Polish uprising of 1863

Conference in London 1871 - a convention was signed that abolished the articles on neutralization of the Black Sea. Russia received the right to have a navy in the Black Sea and strengthen the southern border. The revival of Sevastopol as the main naval base began (the abolition of the articles of the Paris Peace Treaty)

“Union of Three Emperors” (Russia, Germany, Austria-Hungary) 1872. - an agreement of dynastic monarchs who united to fight republican and revolutionary socialist ideas. The isolation of Paris, which had recently dominated European affairs, was emphasized.

Russian-Turkish War 1877-1878. Progress of the war

• Serbia, Montenegro and Romania gained independence
• the autonomy of Bulgaria, Bosnia and Herzegovina was proclaimed
• autonomous Bulgaria received a Christian government and a prince, who was approved by the Porte with the consent of the European powers
• Southern Bessarabia was returned to Russia, and the fortresses in the Caucasus - Kars, Ardahan, Bayazet and Batum - were withdrawn.
• Türkiye was obliged to pay a significant indemnity.

Berlin Congress 1878 – England and Austria-Hungary, under the pretext of protecting Turkey, refused to accept the terms of the Peace of San Stefano and achieved their revision:

• The territory of the autonomous Bulgarian principality was reduced threefold
• Austria-Hungary occupied Bosnia and Herzegovina, and England occupied the island of Cyprus
• the amount of indemnity decreased

Internal crisis at the turn of the 1870s-1880s. M.T. Loris-Melikov and his program:

The appearance of the program (which was called the “Loris-Melikov Constitution”) dates back to the beginning of 1881. It was due to:

• political crisis at the turn of the 70-80s.
• intensification of the socio-political movement, including the zemstvo-liberal movement
• activities of the populist organization "People's Will", which deployed terror tactics

To overcome “sedition” it is necessary and useful to call on society to develop the necessary measures, that is, cooperation between the government and society

• create temporary preparatory commissions to prepare bills
• create an elected body under the tsar from representatives of zemstvos and cities (“General Commission”)
• both preparatory and general commissions were supposed to have a legislative advisory nature

The Loris-Melikov project was the first step towards building a constitutional system in Russia, the beginning of preparations for the creation of a parliament. The project was approved by Alexander II, but on the same day - March 1, 1881. - the emperor was killed. The project was rejected Alexander III, as a result of which M.T. Loris-Melikov was forced to resign.