Black sores on a dog's skin. Skin diseases in dogs: types, first signs, treatment

Content:

Skin diseases are common pathologies in dogs. This is due to the unfavorable effects of the environment, adynamia, and a predisposition to allergic conditions formed as a result of uncontrolled breeding. When the dog’s immunity is weakened, the dog’s skin becomes vulnerable to microorganisms that are permanent inhabitants of the fur surface.

Dog skin diseases are difficult to treat due to the variety of causes that cause them, as well as the combined effect of several pathogenic agents.

Causes

Dermatitis is caused by the following factors:

It is caused by the saliva of fleas and develops as an allergy. The dog feels severe itching, and multiple wounds appear on its skin as a result of scratching and biting. Hair falls out and bald patches appear. Appetite is lost, aggression occurs, manifested by whining, irritability, and constant barking.

Treatment consists of killing fleas with insecticidal preparations. Anti-flea collars can only have a preventive effect.

Dermatitis caused by subcutaneous mites

Subcutaneous mites are characterized by microscopic sizes, no more than 0.5 mm in length. A distinction is made between demodicosis and scabies. Both diseases develop against the background of immune failure. Demodectic mange, colloquially called iron mange, is caused by an excessively multiplied Demodex canis mite. The insect lives in the sebaceous glands and hair follicles, eating their contents.

Scabies is caused by the mites Notoedrosis and Sarcoptes. They, like Demodex, occur against the background of a malfunction of the immune system. Itching begins immediately when no visible changes are observed on the skin. This is explained by the fact that itches live in the deep layers of the dermis, characterized by intense innervation.

Pruritic scabies is diagnosed at earlier stages than demodicosis, so it is easier to treat. The same drugs are used as for Demodex canis infections in dogs. Seasonal exacerbations of pruritic scabies are not observed, because they live in the deep layers of the skin at a constantly high temperature.

Otodectosis is caused by itch mites. Unlike other types, only the inner surface of the auricle is affected. Before use medications The dog's ears are cleaned. They use drugs that relieve inflammation and have acaricidal, antimycotic and anticoccal effects. In demand the following means: Anandin, Aurikan, Tetra-delta, Mastiet-forte.

By effective means, destroying subcutaneous mites are Ivermectin and Dectomax. Their use is carried out under strict veterinary supervision, because the drugs are toxic to dogs.

Dermatitis caused by microscopic fungi

Fungal infection of the skin (lichen) manifests itself as a second infection when infected with subcutaneous mites or as independent disease arising against the background of an immune failure. The scalp, ears, tail root and paws are affected. The skin thickens, turns red, eczema occurs, and the hairs stick together. A wide range of medications are used to treat lichen in dogs and cats:

Mycozon.
Clotrimazole.
Fungin.
Thermikon spray.
Nizoral shampoo.
Imaverol.
Fucoricin.
Griseofulvin.

Allergic dermatitis

An allergy occurs when the immune system perceives an incoming substance as harmful. In animals with healthy immunoreactivity, such compounds are expelled from the body. For allergy sufferers, they create a frantic inflammatory response.

A hypersensitive reaction appears in the presence of the following stimuli:

Arthropod saliva.
Nutrition components.
Inhaled irritants (atopy):

Household chemicals, perfumes, tobacco.
Street dust, mold, beebread.
Insecticides for plant protection.

The main sign of a hypersensitive reaction is itchy skin. As a result of scratching, the skin is peeled off, exposing red hypodermal tissue. The irritant is determined by the doctor by exclusion. Treatment consists of inactivating histamine and antiseptic treatment of the affected skin.

Dermatitis caused by hormonal imbalances

Hair loss, seborrhea, dry skin, thickening, hyperpigmentation or symmetrical baldness are observed in dogs with hypofunction of the thyroid gland. The disease is diagnosed by the concentration of blood steroids. Mitotane, an adrenal suppressant, is used.

Similar symptoms observed in males with testicular tumors. The organ begins to produce estrogens ( female hormones). Baldness is accompanied by sagging of the prepuce and development of the mammary glands. Healthy males mistake sick ones for females. Baldness in females can be a consequence of ovarian tumors.

Age-related baldness is sometimes observed in older male dogs. In all cases healing effect achieved by removing the gonads.

Summer dermatitis

In hot weather, the skin of a dog, especially a long-haired one, is vulnerable to factors that can cause inflammation. The pathology develops according to an allergic scenario: the onset of heat turns on the mechanisms of a hypersensitive response to irritants that arise in a similar situation. Every year, exacerbations of seasonal dermatitis occur in more severe form.

Skin inflammation can start from bathing your dog while summer molt. Dead hairs stick to the surface of the skin, creating conditions for the development of anaerobic bacteria. Their activity causes itching and the dog scratches itself. At high temperatures, the rate of reproduction of microbes and cold-blooded multicellular organisms increases significantly, and the pathological process develops rapidly.

Fleas join in. The dog loses hair on the croup, hips, and under the ear canal. Eczema develops. The exposed surface of the skin becomes ulcerated and becomes a convenient target for flies. Flying insects eat away the edges of the wounds and inject eggs into them. The developing larvae make the dog's suffering unbearable. She tears apart those lesions that she is able to reach.

An unbalanced diet of natural products with a predominance of carbohydrates leads to cracking of the skin. Dog owners often complain about flies eating away at the tips of their ears.

Prevention

Regular disinsection and deworming minimize the risk of developing diseases. When keeping dogs in groups in kennels or shelters, veterinary and sanitary regulations must be strictly observed.

Regular vaccination will protect the dog from infectious diseases and increase the ability of immunocompetent cells to resist non-infectious factors that provoke inflammation.

Among all dog diseases, the most common are skin diseases, which most often arise due to allergic reactions, inflammation, infections, genetic predispositions. Unlike other ailments, skin diseases in a pet can be noticed with the naked eye and promptly consult a doctor, who will determine the diagnosis and prescribe treatment.

Types of skin diseases in dogs - photos

Depending on the cause of occurrence, skin diseases in dogs are divided into several types:

Having discovered skin lesions, the owner must immediately show the dog to a doctor. At the same time, despite the obvious symptoms and manifestations of the disease, it can be quite difficult to make an accurate diagnosis, and treatment can take a long time.

As soon as you suspect that your pet has a skin disease, you should urgently take the following actions:

Stop petting your pet.
Observe personal hygiene rules.
Do not allow the dog to sleep on the owner's bed.
Avoid contact between your pet and children.
To avoid spreading infection, stop brushing your dog's fur.

Before visiting a doctor, you should not lubricate the affected areas with any ointments, brilliant green or iodine. You can cut the hair and treat the skin with salicylic alcohol.

With the help of fungal spores, dermatophytosis is easily transmitted from animal to animal. Yorkshire Terriers are most prone to it.

Symptoms of fungal skin diseases:

Alopecia, which is rarely itchy and never has associated lesions.
Damage to the ulnar bed and claw, which exfoliates and turns yellow.
Rarely, nodular skin lesions from which pus may ooze.
In severe forms of the disease, microspores may affect the paw pads.

For fungal infections, the veterinarian most often prescribes treatment of the pet with special shampoos, which include Dermazol and Nizoral. A special drug for animals, Imaverol, is also used. A course of treatment with special antifungal drugs Terbinafine, Itraconazole, Ketonazole is prescribed.

The specialist must prompt the owner of the sick dog that in order to destroy fungal spores, it is necessary to treat the pet’s bedding and wash all its habitats.

Allergies in dogs

It is not very easy to identify an allergen, so allergic skin diseases are quite difficult to diagnose. The most common dog allergens are:

food products;
house dust;
insect bites;
plant pollen;
mold;
household chemicals;
medications.

A fairly common allergen is frequently used flea removal products. Even the most harmless ones, they belong to the group of pyrethroids, and therefore quite often cause allergic reactions.

To the main symptoms of allergies in dogs include:

severe itching;
salivation;
runny nose;
sudden cough;
nettle fever;
edema.

Due to the fact that protective properties skin allergies decrease, and over time various rashes, redness, and pustules appear on it. As the pet begins to itch a lot, it develops bald patches.

An allergic reaction that occurs quickly is the easiest to identify. By conducting a thorough investigation, the cause of the allergy can be quickly identified and eliminated. Most often, such reactions are characterized sudden appearance runny nose, cough and urticaria, which manifests itself itchy blisters on the face, under the arms and in the groin. Hives disappear quite quickly, but to prevent the pet from scratching the blisters and causing infection, the inflamed areas of the skin are wiped with vodka or salicylic alcohol. In addition, the dog should take suprastin, tavegil or diphenhydramine 3 times a day.

The causes and sources of delayed allergic reactions are identified in stages:

Food allergies in dogs are not common, but if your pet has an allergic reaction to certain foods, they should be excluded from the diet.

Scabies or aranchnosis

Zheleznitsa.
Ear scabies.
Pruritic scabies.

Some forms of these diseases are contagious to humans, but can be quickly cured without the use of any drugs.

The symptom of mange is localized itching, which occurs most often in the ears, hocks and elbow joints. Since over time, mites affect not only the surface of the skin, but also begin to irritate the nerve endings, the itching becomes unbearable. Therefore, at the slightest suspicion of scabies, it must be treated immediately. Otherwise, your pet's metabolism may be disrupted and exhaustion may begin. In severe cases, if scabies is not treated, the animal may die.

Treatment of the disease must be comprehensive. First of all, the itching is calmed and mites are destroyed. At the same time, it is necessary to improve skin regeneration processes and increase immunity. In some dogs, complete recovery does not occur, and as soon as immunity decreases, the hormonal state of the animal changes, or the pet becomes stressed, the disease recurs.

Seborrhea

If the dog is healthy, then there is no dandruff on its skin or it is almost invisible. Seborrhea can develop as a result of a disruption of the endocrine system, or be a consequence of sarcoptic mange. With seborrhea, the functioning of the sebaceous glands is disrupted, the skin becomes oily and many scales appear on it.

The first foci of the disease appear in the lower abdomen and on the paws. The dandruff then spreads to the ears and tail, hocks and elbows, muzzle and chest.

There are two types of seborrhea:

Dry. This type is characterized by dry skin, on which scaly, dry, crumbling dandruff forms.
Fat. The disease is characterized by excess sebum, greasy scales clinging to the fur, brown patches on the skin and a rancid odor.

Dry seborrhea most often affects small sofa dogs, which are often bathed using various detergents. As a result, their skin becomes dehydrated and dry dandruff appears.

In some cases, the cause of dry seborrhea may be a lack of fat in the animal's diet. To get rid of dandruff, you can try including a teaspoon or dessert spoon in your dog's food. vegetable oil which she must eat daily. If after some time the dandruff does not disappear and the itching intensifies, then you need to consult a specialist.

Since in some cases seborrhea is a consequence of a disease, the doctor prescribes medications to treat the underlying disease.

Dermatitis in dogs

Dermatitis is an inflammation of the skin. The causes of this disease can be very diverse. According to them, all dermatitis in dogs have conditional qualifications:

In some cases, the diseases are related to the age of the dogs. In pets during the first years of life, dermatitis manifests itself as purulent and purple blisters and pustules on the lips, chin, groin and hairless part of the abdomen. In older dogs, the disease manifests itself in the area knee joints and along the back, where papules, pustules or acne-like rashes are found.

For any dermatitis painful places treated with bactericidal soap and 3% hydrogen peroxide. If this doesn't help, your doctor may prescribe antibiotics.

To cure a pet, it must be diagnosed correct diagnosis, which can only be done in a clinic. Specialists will conduct an examination, take the necessary tests and, based on them, prescribe adequate treatment. It must be remembered that it is almost impossible to cure skin diseases in dogs on your own. You should not postpone a visit to the veterinarian, since missed time can lead to the animal’s suffering, and in some cases, its death.

Skin diseases in dogs

The skin, contrary to the opinion of many animal lovers, is not just a “natural cloak”, but a complex organ, the health of your pet largely depends on its performance. It is not surprising that even the most “harmless” skin diseases in dogs are quite capable of leading to very serious consequences.

For example, “simple” food intolerances, which occur in every dog at least once in their life, are one of the main reasons for the development of deadly and completely incurable autoimmune pathologies.

Regardless of the cause of skin diseases, the first sign of many of them is itching. If your dog is constantly itching for no reason, it won't hurt to take him to the vet right away. In cases where “scratchiness” is accompanied by licking and the appearance of ulcers, wounds, a strange odor from the skin, etc., you should immediately take the dog to the doctor.

However, such signs rarely occur, since most owners show conscientiousness, bringing their pets to the clinic when endless itching appears.

In order to notice signs of something wrong in time, you should conduct preventive examination your pet.

It's easy to do:

You need to carefully part the fur and carefully examine the skin.
Particular attention should be paid to the spinal column, abdomen, and groin area.
The appearance of redness, swelling, profuse dandruff, rashes, nodules or pustules are all clear signs of “problems” of the skin.

Today, veterinarians identify the following types of skin pathologies in dogs:

Regardless of the specific type and causative agent of the disease, the following always contribute to the appearance of skin ailments: negative factors external and internal environment:

Poor quality and unbalanced feeding. A lack of vitamins A and E is especially dangerous for the skin, as they are vital for the normal regeneration of the skin epidermis.

Crowded housing and unsanitary conditions(typical for some nurseries and animal shelters).

Frequent contact with other pets(the same fungi are transmitted almost instantly). The same problem can befall owners of purebred animals if they often take their pets to exhibitions. Alas, it is unrealistic to give a 100% guarantee of the purity of all participants. Many skin pathologies can take weeks or even months to develop, with visible symptoms often absent (or only a very experienced specialist can see them).

Metabolic disorders and hormonal pathologies, as well as genetic predisposition.

Frequent stress.

Poor ecology and abundance of reagents on the roads. Since dogs need to go for walks, they have to experience the “delights” of the ecological state of cities to the fullest. The skin on the paw pads is especially affected, as the salt literally corrodes it.

Thus, if you isolate your pet from at least some of these factors, the likelihood of disease occurring can be seriously reduced. Unfortunately, it is still impossible to give a complete guarantee of their absence.

Fungal skin diseases

One of the most insidious and difficult groups. Pathologies of fungal origin take a long time to develop, are difficult, the therapeutic course is long and does not provide an absolute guarantee of a complete cure. Because of this, experts recommend bringing even a dog that has recovered from the disease for a preventive examination.

Acanthosis nigricans

A pathology characterized by severe darkening of the skin, as well as changes in its structure. It is considered a disease specific to dogs. There are primary and secondary forms. The exact cause of its occurrence is still unknown. But practicing veterinarians have long found out that the presence of pathogenic forms of fungi increases the likelihood of its occurrence by at least 70%.

Primary acanthosis: symptoms

This form of the disease is very rare and develops in puppies under one year of age. The disease is characterized by the appearance of patches of black skin, which becomes very thick and rough. Excessive dandruff is also characteristic. It is very likely that purulent inflammation will develop in these same places due to the contamination of the skin with pathogenic and conditionally pathogenic bacterial microflora. After a couple of months, foci of inflammation spread throughout the dog’s body.

There is no cure. They try to slow down the development of the disease by using anti-inflammatory corticosteroids and shampoos with an antiseborrheic effect for this purpose.

Secondary acanthosis: causes, symptoms, treatment

The most common form of the disease, the development of which is caused by the action of toxins and allergens of fungal microflora. In addition, the following is detected in sick animals:

Exceeding normal body weight.
Hormonal imbalances.
The dog's initial tendency to develop allergic diseases.

As in the case described above, the skin becomes very dark, thickens and coarsens. A sick animal loses hair en masse and develops severe itching, causing the dog to constantly itch, tearing the skin until it bleeds.

When treating secondary acanthosis loading doses are prescribed antifungal drugs in combination with anti-inflammatory corticosteroids and dexamethasone.

It should be taken into account that in some cases the root cause of the disease is a complex of fungi and bacteria, which is why treatment also requires broad-spectrum antibiotics. Be sure to add vitamins A and E to food, as well as increase the volume of lipids in feed.

Dermatomycoses (lichens)

These diseases are considered leaders among “fungal” pathologies. The popular name is lichen. In practice, there are two main pathogens:

Microsporum gypseum.
Trichophyton mentagrophytes.

Important! All lichens are highly contagious and capable of causing disease (i.e., virulence).

In this way, the causative agents of lichen are very different from other pathogenic fungi, which extremely rarely cause disease in animals whose immune system somehow functions. But that’s not even what’s more dangerous.

“Lichen” fungi are characterized by low species specificity. This means that they can easily cause illness not only in dogs, but also in cats and all members of your family.

Given this circumstance, you should carefully observe all personal hygiene measures when caring for and treating a sick pet.

Symptoms of lichen in dogs

If the dog is completely unlucky, the lichen will gradually penetrate into the deep layers of the skin (even cases of damage to internal organs have been described). A severe course is indicated by damage to the nail plates, which become porous, brittle, and peeling.

But still, this only happens in advanced cases: if the disease is noticed in time and treated in time, nothing terrible will happen.

The classic “clinic” is characterized by the following:

The fur of a sick animal becomes very fragile, the hairs become thinner and easily break off at the very root from the slightest physical impact (such hairs are like grenades stuffed with pathogen spores).
Round patches of baldness appear on the dog's coat. In the center there is a red spot, reminiscent of a burn mark.
As a rule, lichen in dogs occurs without itching. Based on this feature, they can be easily distinguished, for example, from allergies.

Treatment and prevention

Skin mycoses are perhaps the only diseases for which a vaccine can be used. It is also used for prevention.

As for drugs, the “standard set”:

amphotericin;
flucytosine;
econazole;
clotrimazole.

Malassezia

Malassezia is extremely characteristic of dogs. The causative agent is a yeast fungus that normal conditions does not pose any danger to the dog’s body.

But! The following external and internal environmental factors can stimulate the “transformation” of harmless yeast:

Unjustifiably long-term use of antibiotics and anti-inflammatory corticosteroids. These medications greatly impair the immune system.
Stress.
Poor quality food.
Breed predisposition. Malassezia "at once" affects bulldogs, pugs, sharpeis, as well as representatives of breeds with long, drooping ears.

Symptoms and treatment

The skin folds, skin under the ears, and the groin area are most often affected. The hallmark of a yeast infection is a “musty” odor, which to some breeders resembles the aroma of stale cheese.

The dog is constantly itching, and later, when it develops severe inflammation, is in pain. From time to time, the disease seems to recede, but soon a new relapse develops.

Treatment is carried out using the same means that we have already written about above. In addition, washing the dog using antifungal shampoos is recommended.

Fungal "oily" seborrhea

A disease characterized by increased activity of the sebaceous glands. In this case, the secretion of the latter serves as an excellent substrate for the growth and development of fungal microflora, and the fungi can be very different.

The disease is characterized by a “sloppy” appearance of the animal and the appearance of an extremely unpleasant dog odor. By the way, it should be noted that a healthy dog should not smell like that (well, if it is not wet or dirty, of course).

Important! Seborrhea, regardless of its origin, is a disease prone to constant relapses. If a dog has had it at least once, there is almost a 100% chance that he will get it again.

Symptoms

"Clinic" is quite easy to define. You may notice the following signs:

Despite the “oily” nature of seborrhea, abundant, “snowy” dandruff additionally appears. The animal's resting places are literally sprinkled with it.
The fur along the vertebral ridge and the tail of sick dogs stick together due to the incredible copious discharge sebaceous secretion, and even begin to smell extremely unpleasant.

Treatment of oily seborrhea

Despite the tendency to relapse, the disease is treated quite simply:

The affected areas of the skin are lubricated (literally two or three drops) with tea tree oil.
For washing, use special veterinary shampoos with antiseborrheic shampoo.
In severe cases, additionally use antifungal agents, which we have already written about above.

Allergic skin diseases

Unfortunately, not all breeders take these pathologies seriously. Many people are accustomed to thinking that allergies are “just” harmless sniffling and sneezing. Meanwhile, this is not at all true. We wrote above that allergies are one of the basic causes of severe (and incurable) autoimmune diseases.

Interesting! IN winter time these pathologies occur much less frequently.

Allergic dermatitis

This is an inflammation of the skin of an allergic nature. Almost all compounds and substances used in the composition can act as allergens (i.e. substances that contribute to the development of allergies). household chemicals, cosmetics, detergents.

To prevent your dog from encountering this problem, you need to follow several rules in everyday life:

Use only those baskets and bedding whose origin is beyond doubt. They must have certificates of conformity and are made from hypoallergenic materials.

The selection of feed should be approached with triple caution. If your dog has had a food problem at least once in his life, then before changing food, do not be lazy to consult a veterinarian. All new foods should be given to such a pet in small portions, carefully observing the reaction of his body.

Try to “kick” the dog out of the house when it is being cleaned. The less the animal is in contact with potential allergens, the less likely it is to develop allergies.

We recommend using glass or metal dishes as bowls. It is unknown how the body of an allergic person will react to the components contained in modern plastics.

Symptoms and treatment

Inflammation will first develop in those areas of the skin that have been in direct contact with allergens. Accordingly, the first signs can be seen on the paws, stomach or face.

First, small redness appears there, which subsequently “mutates” into inflamed and festering wounds (and pus is a consequence of the intervention of secondary pathogenic microflora).

Treatment is relatively simple:

First, the animals are prescribed loading doses of antihistamines.
Secondly, it is necessary to isolate the pet from the action of all potential antigens, for which, ideally, it is kept in a separate room.
Finally, in severe cases, anti-inflammatory corticosteroids are additionally prescribed.

Allergic eczema

Eczema is also an inflammatory skin disease, but it should be considered separately from dermatitis. Here are the reasons for this approach:

With this pathology, damage occurs (primarily) not to the outer, but to the deep layers of the skin.
There is a higher likelihood of a severe course of the disease, accompanied by the formation of deep wounds and ulcers.

Symptoms and treatment

The signs are similar to the clinical picture of dermatitis, but with a “bias” towards a severe course. The affected areas of the skin not only become very red, but also swell, and at the same time the local temperature bodies. Itching develops, causing the dog to furiously rub and scratch the skin.

Soon ulcerations and wounds appear on the animal's skin. Since the dog is constantly itching, they are quickly contaminated with secondary microflora, which additionally develops purulent inflammation.

Symptoms

Since mites prefer to settle in those areas of the skin where the hairline is least developed (groin, muzzle, eyelids), the signs of pathology progress quickly:

At first, problems are associated with itching (very severe) and progressive hair loss. The dog scratches furiously and even gnaws its belly, chest, elbows, and tail. Because of this, the dog soon begins to resemble a skinned one, as its entire body is covered with a dense network of scratches and wounds.
The infection progresses quickly and, if nothing is done, the affected area can reach 70% of the entire skin.
The appearance of multiple scabs and ulcers is characteristic.

Since the dog constantly injures and tears the skin, the disease is always accompanied by inflammation of a bacterial nature.

Important! Sarcoptes scabiei can penetrate into internal organs. A sign of the beginning of “expansion” is inflamed and swollen lymph nodes.

Treatment and prevention

It is advisable to use products that contain Selamectin. In addition, drugs based on ivermectin are cheaper (but also very effective).

Demodectic mange (follicular scabies)

The causative agents are mites from the genus Demodex (there are about one and a half hundred of them in total). Often they can be found on the skin completely healthy dogs. Because of this, many veterinary specialists believe that follicular scabies is the fate of animals with an initially suppressed and weakened immune system.

Symptoms and treatment

Demodicosis is a disease accompanied by severe, active loss of fur. But the clinical picture is not limited to this:

Coarsening and thickening of the skin is often observed.
The disease may be accompanied by the development of oily seborrhea (this pathology develops not only due to fungal infections).
In about 30%, itching develops, which is easy to distinguish by its specificity: the dog is not just itching, but is trying to “rip out” or gnaw something from the thickness of the skin. This is a sign of the presence of large colonies of ticks.
Their presence is also indicated by the appearance of hard, round swellings on different parts of the dog’s body.

It is interesting that with normal tension of the dog’s immunity, over time, the disease can spontaneously “end”. Unfortunately, the mites themselves remain in the animal’s body, which often leads to sudden (but regular) relapses.

Often (due to a weak diagnostic base), mild forms of this disease remain undetected, and the animal experiences constant relapses. Due to skin problems, inexperienced breeders think that feeding is to blame, but diet correction in such cases helps little or does not help at all.

This is the name of an inflammatory skin disease that develops against the background of constant flea bites (as well as lice and lice). This disease can be classified as allergic, since inflammation and other clinical signs are a consequence of an allergy to the components of the saliva of bloodsuckers.

Symptoms

The main signs of flea inflammation are:

The main symptom (which is easy to see at home) is fleas scattering in all directions and bitten, reddened areas of the skin.
Many animals (due to allergies) develop such severe itching that they can literally scratch and chew their own skin to the meat.
The appearance of wounds, scratches, and scabs is typical. When all this is contaminated with secondary pathogenic bacterial microflora (and this will definitely happen), long-term non-healing ulcers will appear.

Treatment

Really cope with bloodsuckers and folk remedies:

To do this, the animal's fur must be regularly treated, lubricated with a couple of drops of wormwood oil.
To kill fleas in the external environment, you need to wash all nooks and crannies more often, generously using chlorine-containing detergents.

Unfortunately, in more severe cases this is not enough. The animal is prescribed antihistamines, as well as anti-inflammatory corticosteroids and antibiotics (to relieve bacterial secondary infections).

Bacterial skin diseases

These skin conditions in dogs are very common. In principle, this can include most the pathologies described above, since in almost all cases the disease is complicated by the contamination of the affected areas of the skin with pathogenic and conditionally pathogenic microflora.

Staphylococcal dermatitis in dogs

In this case, skin inflammation is caused by the action of staphylococci. The second name for this disease is pyoderma. In medicine and veterinary medicine, this is the name for any pathology accompanied by the appearance on the skin of numerous pustules filled with liquid pus. The disease is quite severe, leading not only to a significant deterioration of the dog’s immunity.

Important! In advanced cases, the death of the animal due to sepsis is quite possible.

Symptoms

In veterinary practice, there are two main types staphylococcal infection skin:

The first variety is classic. In this case, numerous pustules appear on the skin, sometimes “re-qualifying” as abscesses.
The second type is much less common. It is characterized by the formation of rounded, bald areas on the skin of a sick animal, the epidermis on which becomes very rough and thickened. Baldness is accompanied by peeling, but pustules are formed extremely rarely. Because of this, the second type of staphylococcal inflammation is often confused with demodicosis. Microscopic examination of scrapings will help establish the truth.

Treatment of dermatitis in dogs

The main therapeutic method is prescription loading doses broad-spectrum antibiotics. But there is one problem - there are hundreds of strains of staphylococci (if not more), and their sensitivity to common antibacterial agents varies greatly.

For this reason, specific drugs should be prescribed only after sowing the pathological material on nutrient media, followed by testing the drugs on ready-made cultures of the pathogen.

Please note that serological blood tests should be carried out during diagnosis.. This is due to necessity precise definition pathogen strain, and the existence of other bacterial infections, which can lead to exactly the same symptoms.

Streptococcal dermatitis in dogs

In many ways, this disease is similar to that described above, but has several specific features. As a rule, streptococci are safe for animals, and their activation is promoted by stress, sudden temperature fluctuations and other negative factors. external environment. Only rare strains can cause skin inflammation (but there are many of them in the environment).

Symptoms and treatment

The following signs can be seen in sick dogs:

Impetigo (appearance of pale, whitish spots on the skin).
Ecthyma. Roughly speaking, this is dermatitis of the deep layers of the skin.
In advanced cases, inflammation reaches the fascial sheaths of muscle fibers and even joints.
"Tropical" ulcers.
Vulvar dermatitis (i.e. damage to the skin and mucous membranes of the external genitalia).
The general condition of the animal is depressed, it often refuses food and lies for a long time.

Streptococci, despite their danger, are well destroyed with the help of simple antibiotics penicillin group. In practice, the combination of erythromycin and cephalosporins has worked well (ceftriaxone is especially good). In advanced cases, only a long course of erythromycin helps.

Skin diseases in dogs are becoming more common today. The reason lies in many aspects: improper and inadequate nutrition, deterioration of the ecological atmosphere of the air, a sedentary lifestyle, crossing with infected individuals. Often skin diseases in animals manifest themselves as hereditary predispositions to skin diseases.

Types of skin diseases in dogs

If there is the slightest change in the dog’s hair, contact a veterinary clinic for necessary tests and productions accurate diagnosis diseases. Here are some common skin diseases in dogs. Only a doctor can make an accurate diagnosis.

Symptoms of the disease

If skin diseases appear in dogs , symptoms are divided into 3 groups.

Excruciating itching, in which the dog scratches the body until there are abrasions and scratches.
The appearance of neoplasms on the skin: plaques of different sizes and color range, warts, blisters. On the damaged body of the dog, peeling and redness of the skin develops, which turns into baldness.
If the damaged areas of the skin get infected or get microbes, the dog’s skin becomes inflamed, swollen and festers.

Skin diseases in dogs are dangerous for animals and humans. It is important to provide timely medical care to your pet.

Treatment of skin diseases

Selected simple diseases of dogs and skin diseases can be cured at home.

Has healing properties home flower- aloe. Aloe juice applied to the dog's damaged skin will relieve itching, discomfort and burning sensation. It’s easy to squeeze aloe juice yourself or buy a ready-made product at the pharmacy.

Herbal decoctions have similar effects: chamomile, calendula, echinacea. The drugs reduce pain in the dog, relieve inflammation and eliminate microbial suppuration on the skin.

These products are used exclusively for initial stages development of the disease. If complex skin diseases are observed in dogs, treatment is carried out in conditions veterinary clinic. Before prescribing drugs, the doctor must conduct full diagnostics suspected disease, take appropriate skin tests and blood tests, and scrape the dog's skin. After determining the exact diagnosis of the disease, effective treatment is prescribed.

An accurate diagnosis of the disease cannot be made solely by visual examination. It will be necessary to conduct laboratory tests on the dog's hair.

If a doctor, after looking at a dog, immediately prescribes medications, the dog cannot be treated under the guidance of such a doctor. Remember, improper treatment can lead to the death of the animal.

Preventive measures

Dog diseases are often associated with improper maintenance and care. It is necessary to fulfill simple conditions so that the pet remains healthy and alert.

Don't let your four-legged friend suffer, remain a responsible owner.

IN last years Skin diseases in dogs and cats occupy one of the leading places among the diseases found in these animal species. Changes in feeding patterns and deterioration of environmental characteristics are increasingly making themselves felt environment, sedentary lifestyle of most small domestic animals, not always competent breeding work. These factors contribute to the emergence and consolidation of various pathological conditions in the gene pool, many of which are accompanied by skin manifestations. Let's briefly talk about the properties and functions of skin:

Skin is an epithelial-connective tissue organ of the animal's body. It provides a barrier function, preventing the loss of water, electrolytes and macromolecules. In addition, the skin mechanically protects the animal from adverse environmental influences and, due to its elasticity, allows movement. However, despite the protective barrier, nerve receptors allow you to feel heat, cold, pressure, pain and itching. The skin is responsible for temperature regulation and the accumulation of vitamins, electrolytes, water, fats, carbohydrates and proteins. The surface of the skin has both antibacterial and antifungal properties, and this, in combination with its immune-regulatory function, helps prevent the development of infections. When exposed to sunlight, vitamin D is synthesized in the skin, and the pigment contained within melanocytes (pigment cells of the skin) prevents the damaging effects of solar radiation.
In practice, a veterinarian has to deal with skin diseases in more than 20% of cases. Moreover, only a small part of them are actually skin problems. Most cases are skin symptom main disease of the body. To find out what the problem is we're talking about, it is necessary to consult a veterinarian, who has a wide range of diagnostic and laboratory methods studies (blood tests, smears, scrapings from affected areas of the skin, fluorescent diagnostics).

Now let's talk about what the animal owner needs to pay attention to and what mistakes are most common when caring for an animal:

Feeding. Today, there are two types of animal feeding used by owners: natural feeding using products of plant and animal origin, and industrial feeding using dry and canned food various manufacturing companies. The animal owner naturally decides which feeding to give preference to. But I would like to warn against unjustified mixing of these types of feeding by the majority of owners. Industrial feed contain nutrients in a certain proportion according to the type, age and breed of the animal, and adding foods “from the table” to them not only upsets this balance, but also significantly harms the health of the animal. Also, you should not mix food from different manufacturers together, thus trying to diversify the animal’s diet. Food is selected individually for each animal according to the above requirements, provided there are no allergic reactions. Feeding with dry food provides free access to drinking water.
If we are talking about natural feeding, then 70% of the diet should be animal feed (beef, poultry, fish, eggs, dairy products) and 30% cereals (rice, buckwheat). With this feeding, it is necessary to include vitamin and mineral supplements in the diet.
The skin primarily reacts to irrational feeding with itching, rash, hair loss, inflammation of the external auditory canals, etc.

Environment. There are quite a lot of problems here, but some of them can be warned to the owner himself.

In winter, avoid walking with your animal on streets treated with deicing agents - this can lead to the development of contact dermatitis paw pads. In order to limit the contact of paws with an aggressive environment, you can use special creams and shoes for animals, which are sold in pet stores. Also avoid frostbite that occurs during long walks on severe frost(the ears of short-haired animals are most sensitive).

Sedentary lifestyle Animal feeding often, in combination with improper feeding, leads to metabolic disorders (obesity, hormonal disorders). In such animals, thinning or hair loss may be observed on the skin. Availability acne, pigment deposition, itching, subcutaneous hemorrhages. But this is only part of the signs indicating an animal disease. Only a veterinarian can determine the cause of their appearance.

Genetics and breeding . There is a breed predisposition to a number of skin diseases, such as acanthosis nigricans occurs primarily in short-haired dachshunds. Crossing with carriers of traits should be avoided. Hypotrichosis (hairlessness of the whole body) found in pinschers, poodles, dachshunds - hairless areas on the outside of the ears, in whippets - on the dewlap. Inflammation of skin folds- in bloodhounds, bulldogs, St. Bernards, chow-chows, spaniels, pugs, Pekingese. When selecting, you should pay attention to the quality of the skin. Seborrhea- schnauzers, spaniels, setters, Dobermans, German shepherds. Pigmentation disorders- Dobermans, retrievers, Afghans, Samoyeds, Dalmatians.

In addition to non-infectious causes of skin diseases, viruses, bacteria, and fungi can play a significant role in the occurrence of pathology. But in such cases, specialist help and adequate treatment are required to establish the cause.
Below we will briefly review the most common skin diseases, classified by clinical manifestations.

Diseases accompanied by peeling skin .

One of the common reasons why owners turn to a veterinarian is that their animals have dandruff. To successfully solve this problem, it is important to determine whether the peeling is secondary or is it associated with primary disorders of keratinization (keratinization), although it is believed that about 80% of cases of skin peeling observed in practice are secondary.
Dermatoses that cause secondary desquamation are usually divided into pruritic and non-pruritic. The former include pyoderma, allergic dermatitis from flea bites, atopy, scabies, and food allergies. As a rule, demodicosis, dermatophytosis, and endocrinopathies uncomplicated by secondary pyoderma occur without itching. Peeling without itching can also be a consequence of insufficient ambient humidity.
Primary keratinization disorders are dermatoses, which are usually clinically manifested by excessive formation of horny scales. Main role Functional disorders of either the keratinizing epithelium or skin glands play a role in the pathophysiology of this process. Such disorders, as a rule, are hereditary and this must be brought to the attention of breeders so that sick animals are not allowed for breeding. This group of diseases includes:

primary idiopathic seborrhea (predisposed breeds - American and English cocker spaniels, Dobermann, Irish setter);
degeneration of hair follicles (Doberman, Rottweiler, Yorkshire Terrier, Irish Setter, Chow Chow, Poodle, Great Dane);
zinc-dependent dermatosis (some breeds of huskies);
acne (bulldogs, boxer, Doberman, Great Dane, Mastino, schnauzers);
epidermal dysplasia and ichthyosis (West Highland White Terrier (WHWT)).

With secondary peeling, the prognosis is usually favorable provided accurate diagnosis and adequate treatment. Peeling associated with primary keratinization defects is much more difficult for reliable control and requires lifelong use of local and systemic treatment.

Diseases accompanied by rash .

Papulocrustous miliary dermatitis in cats - a very common phenomenon observed in many skin diseases. However, the most common cause is allergic dermatitis from flea bites. Young, old and sick animals are more susceptible to flea infestation than healthy and adult cats. A characteristic lesion in miliary dermatitis is scab-like papules, which are easier to palpate than to see. Many cases of crustose dermatitis occur without symptoms of itching. The coat can also be quite normal in appearance. In other animals, the fur may feel greasy to the touch. Some cats experience itching and scratching, which leads to the development of irregular alopecia, which is found mainly on the head, neck and other areas accessible to scratching, and less often on the back. If foci of papulocrustous dermatitis are found on the head and neck, the possibility of ear mite infection, atopy and food allergy must also be taken into account.

Pyotraumatic dermatitis (acute weeping dermatitis)- a common skin disease in animals caused by self-trauma and complicated by secondary bacterial microflora. The basis of this disease is itching caused by allergies. Seasonality of the disease is often noted; most cases are recorded during the warm and humid seasons.
Pyotraumatic dermatitis develops quickly. In this case, clearly demarcated erythematous spots are noted, slightly rising above the surface of healthy skin, resulting from severe self-trauma (scratching, gnawing). There is no hair in these areas for the same reason. Occasionally, although rarely, multiple lesions may be observed. A constant phenomenon with pyotraumatic dermatitis is pain or itching. In most cases, the spots are localized in the lumbar region. Predisposed breeds include German Shepherd, Retriever, Collie, and St. Bernard. No gender or age predisposition was noted.

Intertrigo (skinfold pyoderma) develops as a consequence of anatomical defects, due to which conditions are created (humidity, heat) for the intensive reproduction of bacteria. There are intertrigos of labial, facial, perivulvar and caudal folds. Fungi of the genus may be found in lesions in some animals Malassezia which increase inflammation.
Intertrigo is characterized at the beginning by erythema and exudation, then erosions, ulcers and fistulous tracts develop. Frequent companions This condition is itching and an unpleasant odor resulting from insufficient ventilation of the skin.
Cocker spaniels, springer spaniels, St. Bernards, Irish setters. Intertrigo of the facial fold is characteristic of brachiocephalic breeds (English bulldog, boxer). Pyoderma of the perivulvar fold is often observed in obese bitches with an underdeveloped vulva. Intertrigo of the caudal fold is observed in breeds with short, tightly curled tails, such as English and French bulldogs, and Boston terriers. The generalized form of the disease is most common in Shar-Peis.

Ostiofolliculitis characterized by the formation of a pustule up to 2 mm in size, penetrated by hair located on a hyperemic base. The pustule becomes covered with a crust, which disappears after a few days, leaving no trace. Pustules can be either single or multiple. Bacterial cause osteofolliculitis, as a rule, appears staphylococcal infection. Ostiofolliculitis develops against the background of conditions such as

hypersensitivity (atopy, contact, feed, insect);
endocrinopathies (hypothyroidism, hyperadrenocorticism);
invasive diseases (demodex, scabies, helminthiasis);
idiopathic disorder of skin immunity.

Impetigo (puppy pyoderma)- a benign condition in which a rash forms in the inguinal and axillary areas of immature dogs. These lesions may be accompanied by mild itching and are discovered incidentally during routine examination. Streptococci are most often responsible for the occurrence of impetigo. A predisposing factor is poor care of puppies, although impetigo can also occur in puppies that have proper care. As a secondary phenomenon, impetigo can occur with some viral diseases, for example, with canine plague.

Folliculitis characterized by a deeper spread of inflammation than with ostiofolliculitis hair follicle. A common cause of folliculitis in the muzzle area (facial furunculosis) is a complication acne (acne). The latter is more common in young animals, usually male short-haired dog breeds before puberty. Upon reaching puberty, this condition may disappear without a trace, and in some cases (with the development of furunculosis) - with scarring. In cats, no breed, age or sex differences have been noted for this condition.

Pyotraumatic folliculitis occurs as a continuation of pyotraumatic dermatitis due to the penetration of infection into the deeper layers of the skin. The localization, main causes and breeds that make up the risk group are the same as for pyotraumatic dermatitis. Differs in more pronounced clinical signs, as well as the presence of multiple lesions.

Diseases accompanied by the formation of “nodes”.

The formation of nodules on the skin of dogs and cats is a common reason for visiting a veterinarian. Wherein main question, which needs to be clarified - whether the node is a manifestation of a neoplastic process or is it a consequence of an inflammatory reaction of the skin. The answer to this question will allow you to make a decision on an adequate treatment method and determine the prognosis, which is very important for the animal owner both from the point of view of the opportunity to help the pet and from the point of view of saving money.
Some neoplastic diseases exhibit breed predisposition. Thus, histiocytoma is more common in boxers, Great Danes, dachshunds and shelties. Cocker spaniels, Airedale terriers, and Scotch terriers are prone to developing melanoma. Squamous cell carcinoma is more common in Boxers, Bull Terriers, Pekingese, Scotch Terriers, and Black Terriers than in other dog breeds. Beagles, German Shepherds, and Golden Retrievers are prone to skin lymphoma.
The age of the animal is also an evaluative factor in the likelihood of a particular neoplasm. Age information can also sometimes help determine the type of tumor. For example, histiocytoma is typical for animals of younger (up to 2 years) age, while mastocytoma (mast cell tumor) occurs in older animals.
A very small number of skin diseases accompanied by the formation of nodules have a gender predisposition. These include metastases from breast tumors in females, as well as inflammatory nodes on the back in males with tubular adenoma of the testicle (tumor from Sertolli cells).
For nodes of inflammatory origin, itching is often a characteristic symptom, but the latter can also accompany mastocytoma, especially when it is injured, due to the release of inflammatory mediators. Neoplasms, such as rapidly progressing lymphoma, can be painful, which can also lead to self-injury.
The presence or absence of pigment changes indicates the presence or absence of pathological process inflammatory component.
The nature of the change in appearance and the rate at which the lesion increases in size can give useful information regarding the biological behavior of the neoplastic mass. Mastocytomas that progress slowly over several months are not highly malignant in their biological behavior. The appearance of multiple lesions at the same time may suggest a systemic nature of the disease, which is typical, for example, when metastases spread hematogenously.

Pigmentation disorders.

Pigmentation of the skin and fur of mammals is of great importance for camouflage, sexual dimorphism and hierarchical relationships. For pets, pigmentation does not play a special role, while for their owners it can be of some importance. For example, success at exhibitions largely depends on the “correctness” of the pigmentation of the animal’s skin and fur. Therefore, its violations often upset animal owners, even if the latter do not show any clinical signs of pathology.

Acromelanism. Some cat breeds (Siamese, Balinese, Himalayan and Burmese), which are characterized by the presence of hyperpigmented areas of the skin, were selected for this very trait. In kittens that are born with even color throughout their body, pigmentation develops on the ears and limbs as a reaction to more low temperature bodies in these areas. For the same reason dark spots formed in areas devoid of hair due to either baldness or preparation surgical field. Newly regrown hair is hyperpigmented for only one growth cycle, although it may remain so for a longer period of time.

Lentigo common in adult dogs. Hyperpigmented spots (single or grouped) are found on the trunk or limbs. With age, the number of spots and the intensity of pigmentation may increase. Lentigo affects dogs of many breeds, however, a hereditary form of the anomaly has been described in pugs. In ginger cats, lentigo appears as hyperpigmented spots in the area of the mucocutaneous junctions of the head. Lentigo is purely a cosmetic problem. No treatment has been developed.

Acanthosis nigricans. It is important to distinguish between secondary acanthosis nigricans, which occurs as a reaction to many inflammatory dermatoses, and primary acanthosis nigricans, a disease found exclusively in dachshunds.

Primary acanthosis nigricans. The disease affects dachshunds of both sexes under the age of 1 year. At the beginning, the lesions are limited to bilateral hyperpigmentation, alopecia and acanthosis of the skin of the axillary areas. Subsequently, in some dogs, the lesions cover the entire ventral surface of the body, accompanied by extensive lichenification and secondary seborrhea. In a certain proportion of dogs, acanthosis has a malignant manifestation. In this case symptomatic treatment ineffective.

Secondary acanthosis nigricans. Any inflammatory reaction skin in the ventral part of the body, accompanied by acanthosis and hyperpigmentation, can be described as acanthosis nigricans, although in this case the term is not sufficiently precise. Post-inflammatory hyperpigmentation is a better name for this condition. It does not require specific therapy and disappears when the inflammatory dermatosis is cured.

Vitiligo usually occurs in adult animals and is manifested by progressive depigmentation of the skin, fur and mucous membranes and lasts from several months to several years. The process may involve paw crumbs and claws. In dogs, lesions initially appear around the nasal planum and muzzle and are distributed symmetrically, whereas in cats there may be a more generalized pattern of distribution. Rottweilers, German Shepherds, Belgian Shepherds, black schnauzers and cats are predisposed to vitiligo. Siamese breed, as well as their crosses. In animals, this condition is not associated with any systemic or neoplastic disease. In cats and dogs, areas of the skin that were previously exposed to depigmentation are relatively often depigmented. traumatic injuries. The affected skin and hair appear structurally normal. Depigmented hairs can be located either in groups or singly throughout the coat. Vitiligo in animals is purely a cosmetic problem. No treatment has been developed.

Depigmentation of the nasal planum quite common in dogs of some large and medium-sized breeds, such as German Shepherd, Labrador, Golden Retriever, Royal Poodle, etc. Depigmented skin of the nasal ulum is of normal thickness and does not differ in appearance from skin with normal pigmentation. No other clinical manifestations are noted. Effective treatment not developed.

Patchy baldness.

Patchy (focal) alopecia in animals is a common phenomenon in clinical practice. Baldness can be in the form of one round spot on any part of the body or multiple, giving the coat the appearance of “moth-eaten fur.” Diseases that manifest as focal alopecia may be pruritic, non-pruritic, or may become pruritic over time without being so at first. Among dermatoses that manifest a similar clinical picture, some are common, others less common. The described phenomenon is observed in particular in trichophytosis, microsporia, demodicosis, allergic diseases, folliculitis, alopecia areata, follicular dysplasia, color mutation alopecia, scabies, Malassezia dermatitis, dermatomyositis, zinc-dependent dermatosis.

Symmetrical baldness.

Dermatoses accompanied by non-pruritic alopecia in animals are quite common cause contacting a veterinarian. Currently, it is customary to classify diseases with such manifestations as various types of endocrinopathies. Such animals require hormonal examination and treatment.

Diseases caused by pathogenic fungi .

Malassezia dermatitis of dogs. Recently, a number of skin diseases in dogs (atopic dermatoses, otitis externa) is complicated by yeast fungi of the genus Malassezia, especially Malassezia pachydermatis. Dogs of all breeds are susceptible to Malassezia dermatitis, but basset hounds are particularly susceptible. Skin lesions that are associated with Malassezia pachydermatis may be localized or generalized. Affected areas usually include the external ear canal, muzzle, ventral part of the neck, axillary cavities, groin area, interdigital folds of skin. Most often, the disease is characterized by erythema, alopecia, and dry or oily seborrhea. In chronic cases, lichenification and hyperpigmentation are observed. The itching varies from mild to extremely severe. Skin lesions are often accompanied unpleasant smell, especially in places such as the neck, axillary fossa, ears.

Acarodermatoses.

Tick-borne dermatoses dogs and cats occupy a significant place among skin diseases in these types of domestic animals. Diseases caused by these arthropods are usually accompanied by severe itching, scratching, baldness, phenomena of secondary pyoderma, which not only causes suffering to the sick animal, but also greatly upsets its owners. In addition, sick dogs and cats are a source of disease for other animals and for people. Therefore, the closest attention must be paid to the treatment of these dermatoses.
For veterinary dermatological practice, the most important are acarodermatoses such as notoedrosis, sarcoptic mange, otodectosis And demodicosis. These diseases affect both dogs and cats, but with varying frequencies. Thus, notoedrosis and otodectosis are more often recorded in cats, sarcoptic mange and demodicosis - in dogs.

Atopic dermatitis.

Atopy is called a hereditary predisposition to the formation of antibodies against allergens from the environment (pollen, poplar fluff, house dust, etc.). Since atopy is a polyetiological disease with a variety of clinical manifestations, its diagnosis and treatment pose a certain difficulty for veterinarians. In terms of frequency of occurrence among all allergies, atopic dermatitis is second only to allergic dermatitis from flea bites. Often the latter accompanies the former, complicating and confusing clinical picture diseases. Food allergy, and in dogs also pyoderma, can also contribute to the complication of the disease. The clinical manifestations and diagnosis of atopic dermatitis in dogs and cats are largely similar, but there are also differences.

In dogs, atopic dermatitis most often occurs between the ages of 1 and 3 years and affects from 3 to 15% of the entire population of animals of this species, regardless of gender. Breeds susceptible to this disease include terriers (WHWT, Scotch, Fox), golden and Labrador retrievers, boxer, cocker spaniels, German shepherd, Shar-Pei, Dalmatian, English bulldog, miniature schnauzer, Irish and English setters. The most typical clinical signs of atopic dermatitis in dogs are pruritus, alopecia, erythema, hyperpigmentation, and lichenification, which are found on the face, feet, chest, ears, abdomen, and tail. Depending on the source of the allergen, atopy can be seasonal or cause trouble for the animal and its owner for most of the year.
Sick atopic dermatitis Dogs are more often affected by yeast infections (Malassezia), which are facilitated by inflammation and oily seborrhea. In the interdigital spaces, ideal conditions for the proliferation of fungi are created due to increased humidity and relatively more high temperature skin in these areas.

Prokopenkova I.A., veterinarian

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